Conference yukon::christian

This is an abstract of the presentations on the creation/evolution issue
that follow:

As design demonstrates the existence and capability of a designer, the
inherent design in life, the earth and the universe implies the existence
and capability of its Designer. The best source of information regarding a
design can be had by inquiring of the designer. A designer provides better
and more authoritative information about his design than the design does
about itself. In the case of life on earth, the Designer has unmistakenly
identified Himself and revealed specific information about some of the
circumstances surrounding creation. (See 2. A defense of Creation)

Chance does not cause anything. In fact, within the laws of probabilities
and statistics we should not expect order and selection to be the result of
"random" processes. Order and selection are the result of directed,
non-random causes. (See 3. "Chance" is not a cause)

Living matter does not and could not have been spontaneously generated from
non-living matter. The laws of biochemistry, probability and statistics,
and basic information theory are against it. It has never been demonstrated
in the laboratory. (See 4. Life from non-life: Spontaneous Biogenesis? )

Effects caused by random genetic mutations (that is, those that are
phenotypically expressed) are almost always bad. Once in a while they
produce some interesting benign abnormalities. But no one has ever shown
them to be beneficial, so as to result in complex and sophisticated
designs. (See 5. Random genetic mutations)

The "survival of the fittest" clause is a tautology and success does not
imply complexity. Natural selection shouldn't be expected to result in
functionally different or more complex designs. Putting natural selection
together with random genetic mutations doesn't help matters. (See 6.
Natural Selection)

Genetics disproves evolution. Animals vary based on coded genetic
information that is already there. This is the principle of
micro-evolution, which has been verified by the scientific method. (See 7.
Genetics and Micro-evolution)

Similarity does not imply ancestry. The animals don't have ancestral dates
attached to them. Evolutionary taxonomy is an effort based purely upon
speculation and prior acceptance of the evolution model. (See 8. What about
Taxonomy?)

Any discussion of "transitional forms" is based purely upon speculation and
conjecture, and is therefore moot and useless. (See 9. Transitional forms)

The fossil record of life forms does not support evolution. The animals now
fossilized were as complex back then as they are today. They seem to have
appeared abruptly. The fossil record is consistent with creation according
to separate kinds. "Hopeful monster" theories are without foundation and
fallacious. (See 10. The fossil record of life forms)

The fossils themselves don't have dates attached to them. Furthermore, the
process of fossilization should not be expected to occur gradually, but
better fits within the model of a geological catastrophe. (See 11.
Fossilization)

Burial order does not imply ancestry. The various stratified layers of rock
do not have dates attached to them. The ordering of fossils within them are
best modeled as a consequence of a geological catastrophe. The ordering is
also too inconsistent to fit within the evolutionary model. (See 12.
Stratified layers of rock containing fossils)

There is no basis for assuming uniform geological processes and ruling out
catastrophic events. There is no basis for even assuming the uniform and
consistent application of natural law throughout all time.
Uniformitarianism is an ideology without a foundation. (See 13.
Uniformitarianism vs. Catastrophism)

Current methods for dating rocks and organic material using radioisotopes
involve many assumptions about initial conditions and the environment that
are not known. The dating results are inconsistent. Objects known to be
young have been dated using these methods with erroneous results. These
dating methods therefore cannot be considered reliable. And even if they
were reliable, age does not in principle imply ancestry. (See 14.
Radioisotope dating methods)

Many dating methods exist which would similarly suggest that the earth is
thousands, not billions, of years old. While these methods also have their
own set of unverifiable assumptions, they invalidate, or falsify, the few
dating methods that would seem to suggest an old age for the earth. (See
15. Dating methods that suggest a young earth)

There is no substantial evidence for the existence of ape-men, or any
hypothetical sub-human ancestor of man. As far as we know, there is, and
has always been a single species that was totally human since the
beginning. There also exist and have existed various species of apes, some
extinct, and some still living. Perhaps there might also have existed some
degenerate or diseased descendants of modern man. (See 16. The "Ape-men")

Science is limited to the study of natural phenomena and is not sufficient
to evaluate the issue of either creation or evolution. Nevertheless, the
fact of creation is obvious. In conclusion, it may be stated that the
overwhelming evidence points to creation and rules out evolution. (See 17.
Science)

Faith is "confident belief, trust," "being sure of what we hope for and
certain of what we do not see." To believe evolution over creation one must
ignore the overwhelming evidence available for creation. It is better to
place our faith in the Creator, rather than the creation. (See 18. Faith)

Rebuttals are provided to common objections to the design argument and
chance argument. (See 19. Some objections to the design/chance arguments )

A quantitative comparison is made between a hypothetical message from outer
space and the complexity/coding of a living structure, demonstrating that
if one accepts purpose, planning, and intent as the cause for one, then one
is compelled to accept purpose, planning, and intent for the other. (See
20. Extra-terrestrial intelligence)

A resource list of books, pamphlets, tracts, videos, magazines, and
research organizations is provided for further reference. (See 21. Resource
list )

A list of primary source documents cited by the secondary sources is given
for footnoted points in essays 14., 15., and 16. (See 22. Primary source
references )

In the computer industry, we know that any computer system functions
according to a design and contains highly coded information. Because of the
complexity of this design and the highly coded information, we attribute
the origin of design in such a machine to an intelligent designer and
coder. In fact, the more sophisticated the machine, the more planning and
forethought we attribute to its development and the more intelligence and
ability we attribute to the designer. Computers themselves can assist as
tools in the process of designing other computers, but ultimately the
origin of the design can be attributed to careful planning and intent apart
from the machine and tools themselves or any process of nature.

No one would suppose that something as complex and sophisticated as a
computer happened together by chance or by natural processes. This idea
would be considered an absurd proposition. So it is with life forms on
earth.

Life on earth is far more complex than computer equipment. In fact, the
collective know-how of the greatest minds in all of human history have
failed to produce a machine of the sophistication and success of even the
simplest replicating life forms. The inherent design in the life forms on
earth and the coded information contained therein must be attributed to a
designer of vastly superior intelligence and ability than man.

It is set forth here as something obvious that design proves a designer and
coded information proves a coder. We simply conclude from consistent
life-experiences that when we stumble across something that has design,
this demonstrates the existence of a designer, and likewise that coded
information demonstrates the existence of a coder. From consistent
experience we also know that a creator is not the creation, but that a
creator exists outside his creation. The evidence in the world around us,
by itself, is reason for us to deduce the existence of a Creator, who
exists outside of his creation. (See Rom 1:19-20, Heb 1:3)

I am an engineer by trade. If I want to find out how a particular piece of
computer equipment was designed, I can go about it in a couple of different
ways. One thing I can do is examine the piece of equipment, taking it
apart, measuring it, etc., to try to come to a conclusion about what makes
it tick. The other thing I can do is go find the designer and either talk
to him or consult the blueprints and other documentation associated with
the device. Of the two methods, the source of the most authoritative
information is to consult the designer and his documentation.

From the principle that the design in life forms today demonstrate the
existence of their creator, the surest way to resolve the
creation/evolution controversy is to see if that creator has revealed
specific information about the circumstances concerning the implementation
of the design.

Written testimony from the Creator includes things like the following
(paraphrased): "I am the only God who ever existed or ever will. There is
no other god besides me." (see Isa 43:10); "I created the universe by
myself. There was no one else with me when I did it." (see Isa 44:24); "God
created the heavens and the earth in six days"; "God created each animal
after its own kind." "God created the first man Adam from the dust of the
ground, and the first woman Eve from the first man's rib" (see Gen 1-2).

Now, anyone can claim to be the creator, and anyone can fabricate
information as if it was from the creator. One of the important things we
must look for is evidence that a piece of spoken or written testimony
really did come from the creator.

As Creator, God has validated his testimony by causing things to happen in
his creation which are specifically intended for us to take note of his
existence and his specific revelation to us. We call these phenomena
"miraculous" because they are supernatural phenomena.

Examples of God's supernatural intervention are such as: Parting the Red
Sea, allowing a virgin to conceive, saying that he will flood the whole
earth, then doing it; predicting events in the future with 100% accuracy;
incarnating himself as a man, allowing his body to be killed and buried,
then raising himself up from the dead after three days. Multiple witnesses
have seen these things happen and heard the Creator speak and have written
them down as reliable testimony which we can now refer back to. Such events
are not considered natural phenomena, and so by definition fall outside the
realm of scientific inquiry.

Keep in mind that in accumulating information, we rely largely on indirect
information about what people have observed. Even a scientist does this,
and an evolutionist does too. An evolutionist cites most of his information
from written or spoken testimony by people who have observed things, and a
minority of information from personal experience. Just like a creationist.

An adequate defense of the authenticity and reliability of the ancient
historical records that make up what we now call the bible is beyond the
scope of this document, so will have to be assumed as a premise. Although
the bible is not required to defend the fact of creation and the existence
of the Creator, it is required to defend the historical time frame and
circumstances in which creation happened and the identity and personality
of the Creator.

We conclude that life on earth came about by a special creative act of God.
A whole set of life forms, including man, was created at once. This
happened on the order of several thousand years ago, and the process took
less than a week. We don't fully understand all the "hows" and the "whys"
in every detail, but we pursue further knowledge given those details that
we are sure of, accepting the authority of what the Creator has to say over
the more limited information we obtain by examining His creation. The
Creator is more knowledgeable, and none of us was there to observe life
come about on earth.

Hopefully this not only provides a defense for "creation," but also
explains why "creationists" are always appealing to the Creator (God) and
testimony that comes from Him (the Bible). Because if you really want to
know about how something was designed, it's best to first consult the
person who designed it.

References: 44

"Chance" does not cause anything.

If I flip a coin, you might say that there is a 50% chance that it will
come up heads and a 50% chance that it will come up tails. But this is only
an observation, not the cause for it to come up heads or tails.

Say I flip a coin and it comes up heads. What was the cause for it to come
up heads? Consider: We understand the laws of motion, statics and dynamics,
friction, etc. If we could analyze each aspect of the position of the coin
in time and space, and take into account all the forces that act upon the
coin, we would conclude that the coin is doing just what it is supposed to
do under the circumstances. In fact, if I could set up all the same
conditions and flip the coin again in exactly the same way, it would by
necessity come up heads each time. It would take a miracle for it not to.

The fact of the matter is that I am too clumsy and lack the skill and
ability to cause a coin that I flip into the air to come down in any
particular way. So we conclude that there isn't enough intelligence and
skill behind my coin flips and consequently we expect a random distribution
of results. We conclude that it is my lack of skill and ability that will
result in disorder and chaos.

Probabilities and statistics are mathematical observations of things. For
things that seem to occur in a random way, we attempt to predict an outcome
using a mathematical model. If the results don't fit the model, then we
must conclude that either we have done our math wrong or the thing just
isn't behaving in a random way. In the case of a sequence of coin flips,
you expect chaos and disorder in the long-term, producing a random sequence
of heads and tails.

Suppose I announce that I am going to repeatedly flip a coin and hope to
come up with a sequence of all heads. So I proceed to flip the coin, and it
comes up heads. You say, "OK." I flip it a second time, and it comes up
heads again. You say, "OK." I flip it again, and it comes up heads again.
You say "Hmmm, OK." Say I flip it again, and it comes up heads a fourth
time. You say "Hmmm." Say I flip it again, and it comes up heads a fifth
time. You say "Wait a minute, what's going on here?" I flip it again, and
it comes up heads a sixth time. You say "Stop, this isn't fair." I say,
"Why?" You say, "It isn't random. You're doing something to make that coin
come up heads each time." I flip it again, and it comes up heads a seventh
time. I say, "Look, millions of people have flipped coins throughout
history. This was bound to happen sooner or later." I flip it again, and it
comes up heads an eighth time. You say, "Come on, what are you doing?" I
flip it again, and it comes up heads a ninth time. I say, "Nothing. Really!
I'm just flipping this coin and it keeps coming up heads by chance." I flip
it again, and it comes up heads a tenth time. You say, "You're a liar. What
do you take me for, some sort of fool?"

Now, if it is true that a million people have tossed coins throughout
history then maybe you should have waited until at least 20 throws (since
2^20 is a million), before even considering crying "foul." But most people,
in fact, won't. Why did the observer in the above example not wait that
long? Because after 10 tries he concluded that he could call the
coin-thrower a liar based on the non-random results. Statistically, he
would have only 1 chance in a thousand of being wrong!

Given the immensely lower probability of things happening in the
evolutionary scheme of things, one should conclude (to be consistent) that
evolution didn't happen. That person would have a 1 in
1000000000000...(fill in some enormous number of zeros)...0 chance of being
wrong, solely on the basis of sheer probabilities. In any case, this person
is not to be taken for some sort of fool.

References: 36

In considering creation/evolution, we must keep in mind that "chance" does
not cause anything. A person defending evolution often excludes an
intelligent creator as an explanation for the cause of things happening,
and in the void substitutes "chance." But "chance" can be one of the
evolutionist's worst enemies.

First of all, what the evolutionist's "chance" creates (figuratively
speaking), the evolutionist's "chance" ought to destroy, in the long run.
Chance is equated with randomness, and randomness is equated with disorder
and chaos. Life on earth is an example of incredible order and complexity.
What, then, was the cause for this order and complexity?

The classic evolutionary concept of spontaneous biogenesis involves living
matter coming about from non-living material by chance. For example, let us
suppose that in a hypothetical primordial atmosphere, ammonia, water,
methane and energy can combine to form amino acids. That this first step
can happen is indisputable and has been verified through laboratory
experiment (such as in the famous Miller/Urey experiment of 1953). However,
to proceed beyond this point to living proteins by chance would involve a
major miracle of such great proportion that one would think it easier to
just accept the obvious (that it didn't happen "by chance").

Amino acids are molecules that have a three-dimensional geometry. Any
particular molecule can exist in either of two mirror-image structures that
we call left-handed and right-handed (in layman's terms). Living matter
consists only of left-handed amino acids. Right-handed amino acids are not
useful to living organisms, and are in fact often lethal. The random
formation of amino acids produces an equal proportion of left-handed and
right-handed molecules. This has been confirmed by laboratory experiment
and is essentially what Miller produced in his famous test-tube experiment
(putting methane, ammonia, and water together and zapping them with
electrical discharges.)

Life as we know it cannot consist of a mixture of left-handed and
right-handed amino acids. So it would take an enormous sequence of
coin-flips (in which the coin came up heads each time) to come up with a
protein that could constitute living matter. Yet there is more.

Proteins consist of amino acids linked together with only peptide bonds.
Amino acids can also combine with non-peptide bonds just as easily. In
fact, origin-of-life experiments in the laboratory yield only about 50%
peptide bonds. So, it would take another enormous sequence of coin flips to
come up with a protein that could constitute living matter. Yet there is
more.

Any particular protein contains amino acids that are linked together in a
particular sequence geometrically. At a minimum, that sequence must be
correct for any given protein at all the active sites which comprise about
half of the amino acids in the protein. Proteins contain anywhere from 50
to as many as 1750 amino acids, depending on the particular protein.

There are about 20 common amino acids that comprise the basic building
blocks of life. Any particular protein must have all the correct
left-handed amino acids joined with only peptide bonds with the correct
amino acids at all the active sites. Yet there is more.

Let us consider the sequence of chemical reactions necessary for us (or
rather, "nobody") to produce one particular protein contained in living
matter: One amino acid can combine with another amino acid in a
condensation reaction to produce a peptide (two amino acids linked with a
peptide bond) and water. One peptide can combine with another peptide in a
condensation reaction to produce a polypeptide and water. And so goes the
sequence of chemical reactions that supposedly can produce one protein
essential to living organisms that can reproduce. Let's stop again, and
consider what has happened thus far.

Each condensation reaction described above is reversible. That is, it can
occur in either the forward or the reverse direction. That means that
"randomness" would be consistent with things breaking down as they are
being put together. But to top it off, the popular scenario involves things
happening in a primordial sea, implying an excess of water. Since a
condensation reaction produces water, and there is already excess water in
the presence of the chemical reaction, there is much more opportunity for
any complex molecule to break down into the more simple ones. Thus, a
polypeptide should combine with excess water to produce monopeptides, and a
monopeptide should combine with excess water to produce amino acids. The
initial reagents of the supposed equations that are given as a pathway to
life are favored, in the presence of excess water. Yet there is more.

Amino acids can react and form bonds with other chemical compounds, and not
just other amino acids. Assuming that there is more in our "primordial sea"
than just amino acids and water, we will encounter scenarios where these
other reactions will take place instead of the ones we want to produce a
protein.

An oxygen-rich atmosphere, such as we have today, is one example of what
would ruin the chemical reactions proposed for the origin of life. It is
for this reason that we have the Oparin Hypothesis, which states that the
atmosphere must have originally been reducing, rather than oxidizing,
containing very little free oxygen and an abundance of hydrogen and gases
like methane and ammonia. Circular reasoning is employed to defend the
Oparin Hypothesis.

The above only considers the formation of a single protein, not to mention
that there are many different kinds of proteins necessary to form the
simplest single-cell organisms. And we haven't even begun to address the
formation of the various nucleic acids and other chemical constituents of
life, which must be simultaneously present (by "chance"). Finally, all
these must occur in in a specific arrangement to form a complex structure
that would make for a reproducing organism (by "chance").

Many evolutionists are now proposing that not proteins, but DNA or RNA
occurred first. Consider that this is moot, since the same amount of
information must be coded into the nucleic acid to synthesize a protein as
is represented by design and structure of the protein itself. This makes
such scenarios to be at least as unlikely.

The spontaneous organization of nucleic acids into DNA or RNA suffers in
concept from the same problems that the spontaneous organization of amino
acids suffers from. All nucleic acids must be right-handed, form particular
bonds, in a particular arrangement, in chemical reactions that proceed in a
particular direction and aren't spoiled by other chemical reactions.

Some evolutionists are proposing that life originated not in a primordial
sea but on some clay template. Again, this is moot, since the clay template
must by necessity be as complex as what is formed on the template. This
makes such scenarios to be at least as unlikely. Furthermore, the evolution
of informational "defects" in the crystalline structures of clays has never
been observed or demonstrated in theory. Shifting the medium for evolution
from biological molecules to polyaluminum silicates solves nothing.

The classic examples given for the formation of some of the basic building
blocks of life by chance therefore lacks substance on a theoretical basis
both according to the principles of chemistry, the principles of
probability and statistics, and the principles of basic information theory.

Without proper theoretical or experimental basis, a scientific hypothesis
cannot be supported. The formation of living matter from non-living matter
by chance remains within the realm of speculation without foundation.

References: 1, 2, 7, 20

Most of us understand that the information that represents the data and
instructions for a computer program has a particular code, designed
specifically by the software engineer. What would we expect to happen if,
once the program was loaded and running, we zapped the binary image from
which it was executing with a random change of some data bit?

In most cases, the program would probably crash or seriously fail to
accomplish anything useful. In some cases, the program might continue on
oblivious to the change. In a very few cases, the program might exhibit
some interesting aberrant behavior. But in no cases would we expect to get
a more complex program or a program of a totally different kind.

So it is with random genetic mutations. Life forms are more complex than
any computer program that we have ever designed. Random genetic mutations
are bad. When they have an observable effect (i.e., are phenotypically
expressed), they are almost always to the detriment of the organism,
killing it, maiming it, making it sterile, etc. Sometimes, interesting
aberrations are the result. But never has anyone demonstrated that a
mutation has benefitted an organism in such as way as to create an
innovative function or a more complex or different kind of life form.

"Chance" does not cause anything. Things that are caused by processes that
we observe to be "random" we associate with increasing disorder, not more
complex design.

Random genetic mutations are claimed to be a key factor by which simple
life forms evolve into more complex ones. A scientific hypothesis is tested
through laboratory experiment/observation and theoretical analysis.
Regarding random genetic mutations being a plausible factor for evolution
to occur, we may conclude the following:

   * In a theoretical sense, the claim fails based on sheer probabilities
     and statistics. Randomness is associated with disorder, and disorder
     is not associated with selection.

   * In an empirical sense, the claim fails, since no one has demonstrated
     that random genetic mutations have created innovative functionality.
     They have never been observed to create more complex or functionally
     different kinds of life forms.

When considering the idea of "beneficial mutations," keep in mind that mere
reproductive success in the presence of a particular environment is not
sufficient to account for innovative functionality and increased
complexity. One can imagine a scenario where a runaway computer program, as
a consequence of its malfunction, begins to consume system resources beyond
what it was designed to, even getting in the way of the proper execution of
other programs that are also running under the same operating system. That
program may have been more than successful in its own right, but it
experienced a deterioration of function that was not advantageous in the
grand scheme of things. Cancer within living organisms is a good example of
this in biological systems.

Sickle-cell anemia is an example of a mutation which gives one a
reproductive advantage over normal people in scenarios where malaria is
rampant, because people with sickle-cell anemia aren't as susceptible to
malaria. But sickle-cell anemia itself is a lethal disease and represents a
deterioration of function when compared with a normal person who has no
disease. If malaria became so rampant in the world that only people with
sickle-cell anemia survived, then the final population would be worse off
functionally than the non-mutant population that lived before the plague
hit. This is not "evolution."

The important thing to remember is that random genetic mutations are the
consequence of transcriptional errors and random noise corrupting highly
coded information. In the long run, living things should be expected to
deteriorate as a whole, implying the reverse of evolution. If anything, the
complex should evolve into the simple.

References: 13, 14

The concept of natural selection involves a tautology and is not a cause
that would be expected to result in different or more complex designs.

A tautology is a statement that includes all possibilities and is therefore
useless. A tautology cannot be used in defense of a position since it is a
restatement of the obvious and contributes no useful information.

Here is the "survival of the fittest" tautology:

Q: Who survives? A: Why, the fittest do, of course!
Q: And what do the fittest do? A: Why, they survive, of course!
Q: And who are the survivors? A: The fittest.
Q: And what do they do? A: Survive!

Every instance of an animal living or dying can be explained by the
"survival of the fittest" clause, regardless of whether evolution or
creation actually took place.

Consider how natural selection applies even in the computer industry, where
we know the origin of things. The good computers sell and people buy the
good computers. The lousy computers don't sell, and people don't buy the
lousy computers. The proliferation of the best computers and the extinction
of the worst is observed. And lo and behold, the computers have actually
gotten better and more sophisticated. But this is not an explanation for
the origin of the the computers and their inherent functionality, but only
their survival in the marketplace. In each case, every aspect of the
sophistication and complexity of a computer can be attributed to
intelligent design by actual designers.

The neo-darwinian evolutionist should be challenged to explain by what
process of nature the innovative functionality of life forms originates.
Predators eating prey is not a vehicle for the origin of any innovative
functionality, but only its possible destruction if one trait should be
driven to extinction. And random genetic mutations should be expected to
corrupt the existing coded genetic information. Furthermore, the animals,
their predators, cosmic radiation, harmful chemicals, and genetic
transcriptional errors have not been shown to be working in some sort of
grand coalition with each other towards a common engineering effort.

This last point is worth repeating, for evolutionists tend to provide an
evasive justification based upon random genetic mutations and natural
selection. When it is pointed out that random genetic mutations are but
meaningless noise, the evolutionist counters that natural selection filters
it into something useful. When it is pointed out that natural selection
doesn't provide any new genetic codes, the evolutionist counters that new
information arrives through genetic mutations. But genetic errors, cosmic
radiation, and other natural environmental influences are random, and
predators are self-serving, merely purposing to kill and eat those less fit
to survive, leaving alone those who are more fit to survive. And the mere
fact that these survivors are successful in the fight for survival doesn't
compel them to be endowed with new functions and codes that weren't there
before. In fact, we should expect just the opposite in the presence of
cosmic noise.

Success does not imply complexity. Evolutionists should be challenged to
explain why higher life forms, such as humans, are compelled to exist just
because certain lower life forms, such as bacteria, are successful in the
fight for survival.

Since neither natural selection nor random genetic mutations nor the two
put together have been demonstrated as a vehicle for the design of
innovative functionality, the concept of neo-darwinian evolution (design by
mutation + natural selection) cannot be supported, scientifically or
otherwise. We should instead expect variations in animals that are limited
to already-existing genetic information.

In the long run, the opposite of evolution should be expected to occur as
the total pool of highly coded genetic information is gradually corrupted.
Complete extinction of all life forms is the ultimate end, as the pool of
genetic information finally deteriorates into random data that is no longer
useful to fulfill any purpose whatsoever.

References: 8

Genetics disproves evolution.

Given that neither random genetic mutations, nor natural selection, nor
both put together can be considered a vehicle for one kind of animal to
change into a functionally different or more complex kind of animal, then
variations in interbreeding animals must be restricted to what is already
in the gene pool.

One classic example given for evolution is the peppered moth. In the
mid-19th century, 98% of peppered moths were light. The light moths blended
in well with the mottled gray lichen on the trees. With the industrial age,
pollution killed the lichen on the trees, making them dark. Birds selected
the light moths for their meal and overlooked the dark moths. By the
mid-20th century, 98% of the moths were dark.

Question: What did the peppered moth evolve into?
Answer: A peppered moth.

Each species of animals has a gene pool. A gene pool is simply all the
different genes that all the members of a species collectively has.
Already- existing genetic information allows for variations to occur among
members of that species as individuals within that species interbreed. In
the case of the peppered moth, the genetic information already existed in
the gene pool, and one genetic trait became more common in the population
as a result of the changing environment and the fact that birds use their
eyes to spot their food.

Variations such as this demonstrate the concept of what is often referred
to as "micro-evolution." A scientific hypothesis is verified through
theoretical analysis and laboratory experiment/observation. Micro-evolution
can be demonstrated in theory (according to the rules of genetics) and in
practice by observation.

It is important not to quickly jump to the conclusion that any particular
beneficial trait was due to a mutation. Already-existing genetic
information can find latent expression in the presence of new environments.
Also, there are genes that can turn on and off upon being subjected to a
particular environment. Evolutionists cite all sorts of alleged examples of
beneficial mutations. The burden of proof is on them, however, to show that
a particular beneficial trait was a mutation to begin with.

It should also be noted that sometimes animals within one species form
distinct groups which no longer interbreed. Since the word "species," by
definition, is a group of animals which interbreed, you might say that new
"species" of animals have been formed. Does this demonstrate evolution?

No it does not. In fact, this also works to disprove evolution. Evolution
requires that the gene pool be expanded to allow for more variations to
occur. Instead, what has happened here is that the gene pool for each of
the splinter groups has gotten smaller. Each new group has a smaller set of
genetic traits in its collective pool of genes, and so will now exhibit
less variation over future generations. Since less variation means less of
an ability for the new species to collectively adapt to its environment,
then we should expect a greater likelihood of extinction (not evolution) to
occur if this process of speciation is taken to its limit.

The important thing to remember in all of this is that the genetic
information was already there from the beginning. And further advances in
selective breeding and genetic engineering will only further disprove
evolution by demonstrating that such selective changes in life forms
requires planning and intent.

References: 14, 37

Similarity does not imply ancestry.

Taxonomy involves classifying animals according to their physical or
genetic characteristics. There are countless species, and among them there
are many similarities, physically and genetically.

One who is an evolutionist tends to look at the similarities and conclude
that there must be common ancestries between various kinds of animals.

One who is a creationist tends to look at the similarities and conclude
that there must be a common designer and design principles for all the
various kinds of animals.

In both cases, the conclusion is based on prior acceptance of either the
principle of evolution or creation.

Correlation does not imply a cause-effect relationship. If two life forms
"A" and "B" are similar, this does not imply that "B" evolved from "A," any
more than it implies that "A" evolved from "B." Evolutionary charts drawn
up to illustrate ancestral relationships between all the various life forms
are therefore entirely hypothetical and speculative to begin with. And it
would be circular reasoning to argue that the charts support evolution.

The important point to keep in mind is that all the animals exist in the
present. Fossils also exist in the present. We weren't there to observe
either evolution or creation happen. So similarities between species do not
demonstrate that either creation or evolution happened.

The issue of whether or not "transitional forms" exist is not a productive
topic to debate in the creation/evolution controversy.

Some evolutionists use similarities between three particular animals to
argue that animal A evolved into animal B based on the fact that animal X
exists.

Some creationists use the dissimilarities between these same animals to
argue that animal A did not evolve into animal X and animal X did not
evolve into animal B.

Said evolutionists keep seeking to justify their "transitional forms" on
account of the similarities and despite the differences.

Said creationists keep seeking to rule out "transitional forms" on account
of the differences and despite the similarities.

Anything is good enough for the evolutionist, and nothing is good enough
for the creationist. Neither will ever satisfy the other or a discerning
observer.

A scientific theory is validated through experimental observation and/or
theoretical evaluation.

Neither party actually observed the origin of animals A, B, or X, so
neither party is qualified to argue scientifically from an experimental
perspective whether or not animal X is a "transitional form."

Neither party can justify the origin of animals A, B, or X from a
theoretical perspective, since no scientific theory exists to explain why
animals A, B, or X must exist with their particular characteristics.

It can be concluded that a discussion of "transitional forms" is moot and
useless.

The fossil record of life does not support evolution.

The fossils which are found in what are usually considered the lowest
deposits are alleged to belong to the Cambrian era of approximately 800
million years ago. In these rocks are found the fossils of various
shellfish and crustaceans, sponges, worms, jellyfish, and various other
complex invertebrate life forms.

If you were to go scuba diving today, explored the bottom of the ocean, and
then explored a hypothetical ocean full of the life forms that are now
represented by Cambrian fossils, you would probably not be able to tell the
difference, except that many species have now become extinct (e.g.
trilobites). In all, you would find fewer life forms today than you would
in this "fossil ocean." This in itself would suggest the opposite of
evolution.

Charles Darwin actually represented the fossil evidence as being a hostile
witness to his theory, as documented in his famous book The Origin of
Species. He claimed that the abrupt appearance of life and lack of
transitional forms was the most serious objection to his theory.

However, it should be noted that the fossil record of life-forms does not
prove either evolution or creation, even though it is most consistent with
the latter. Neither does the fossil record disprove either evolution or
creation. The fossils that exist, exist in the present. And the fossils
that don't exist prove nothing. We weren't there to observe either creation
or evolution happen. Prior belief in either evolution or creation
determines how one interprets the data, whether it be eons of evolutionary
history preserved in gradual deposition or catastrophic burial from a
worldwide flood.

Today, some evolutionists have even turned to other theories, such as the
"hopeful monster" theory, in which Ma and Pa X-o-saur simply give birth to
a Z-o-pus (without proposing the vehicle by which such a thing could
happen, or explaining where said Z-o-pus would get its mate). Another
proposal is the "life seeded by aliens from outer space" theory, which also
has no foundation and just shifts the problem to some other planet.

References: 14

"But doesn't the existence of fossils demonstrate that life has been around
for hundreds of millions of years?" No it doesn't.

When we talk about fossils, we usually refer to the petrified remains of
animals that died a long time ago. It is often claimed that animals which
have died fall to the ground and are slowly buried by the accumulation of
sediment and fossilized in the process. This is not a reasonable
assumption, nor is it supported by experimental observation.

When an animal or plant dies, its remains are quickly eaten by scavengers
and decomposed by bacteria, etc. Any remains are also affected by weather.
Fish in the sea that have died usually float to the surface and are soon
eaten (as opposed to settling down on the sea floor, waiting to be slowly
buried by sediment and fossilized.) How then, should we expect a fossil to
be formed?

The most reasonable explanation involves a catastrophe. To get such a
fossil, you would have to suddenly and quickly bury the animal under tons
of sediment, so that it would be isolated from scavengers and excluded from
the effects of weather. Only then should you expect the petrification
process to work.

Also, these fossils in and of themselves do not give any indication of the
age of the animals that they represent, for they are just impressions of
once-living organisms that have died.

Scientists who are not set on ignoring the biblical record generally agree
that most fossils are most likely the result of the worldwide flood that is
described in the Genesis record, with its cataclysmic geological
implications.

Reference: 13, 18, 19, 35

Burial order does not imply ancestry.

In many places in the world, you can find stratified layers of rock in
which are embedded various fossils. The fossils found in each layer make up
an approximately ordered sequence, from the fish in the lowest layers to
the land-dwelling mammals in the highest.

The evolutionist and the creationist come up with entirely different
stories from this picture, depending on the prior acceptance of either
evolution or creation.

The evolutionist pictures a gradual build-up of each stratum, or layer,
over hundreds of millions of years of the accumulation of sediment,
gradually fossilizing dead animals in the process. The oldest evolved life
forms that supposedly arose out of the sea are logically to be found in the
lowest layers. The most recently evolved life forms are to be found in the
highest layers.

The creationist pictures a global catastrophe (the flood), which over a
very short period of time causes the sudden upheaval and deposition of
earth and sediment in some geographical areas. This upheaval buries animals
in that ecological niche, dumping layer upon layer of sediment on them
amidst swirling underwater currents. The fish are naturally to be found at
the bottom because they dwelt in the lowest elevations, in ponds, lakes,
and rivers. They were the first to be buried, and the least able to escape
the deluge. The mammals are to be found at the top because they lived in
the highest elevations in the region, and also were the best equipped to
escape the deluge, resulting in them being the last and the fewest to be
buried.

The problem with evolutionary thinking is that fossils of various
"evolutionary periods" are not consistently found in the proper strata. In
many places, fossils representing "more recent" life forms are found in
strata far below their supposed ancestors.

The existence of polystratic fossils (fossil life forms that are found
buried vertically through several layers of strata, such as trees and long
cone-shaped mollusks) also disproves the evolution story, since this would
require that the organic remains of such life forms remain intact and
unfossilized for millions of years in place above the ground, awaiting the
deposition of successive layers of strata.

For the evolutionist, the mere existence of polystrates and fossils of
"recent" life forms below the fossils of their "ancestors" disproves their
hypothesis. Evolutionists cannot explain polystrates at all, and they
resort to theories of "overthrusting" to explain how older strata ends up
over newer strata, even though such a phenomena has never been observed,
and even though they cannot explain where the geologic forces should
originate. Overthrust theories also demonstrate circular reasoning as
evolutionists try to use the geologic column to support their theory, then
use their theory to explain away inconsistencies in the geologic column.

However, the creationist acknowledges that the ordering would be
approximate, based on the chaotic nature of the flood, and that different
strata models would be found in different parts of the world, based upon
the local ecosystem and what animals dwelt in it. And fossils buried
through several layers of strata would obviously not be a problem.

References: 11, 13, 14, 18, 19, 35

Uniformitarianism is the philosophy wherein it is assumed that the geologic
features of the earth have been laid down through uniform processes,
gradual erosion and gradual sedimentation being examples. A philosophical
extension of this principle is that all phenomena in the universe can be
explained by the uniform application of the laws of nature; put another
way, that all phenomena are natural phenomena. And a philosophical
consequence of that principle is that there is no Creator who exists
outside of the creation who is able and willing to intervene in the natural
order in a supernatural way.

Catastrophism is the viewpoint wherein it is assumed that at least some of
the features of the earth have been laid down as a result of a catastrophe.
A philosophical extension of this principle is that some phenomena may be
explained by exceptions to the laws of nature; put another way, that not
all phenomena are natural phenomena. And a philosophical consequence of
that principle is that there is the allowance for a Creator who exists
outside of the creation who is able and willing to intervene in the natural
order in a supernatural way.

Since at least one worldwide catastrophe (the flood) has been historically
documented, catastrophism is backed by historical record.

Uniformitarianism has no backing for it. It is just a baseless
presupposition. Even if uniformitarianists don't accept the historical
record, they have no scientific basis for assuming that a worldwide
catastrophe has not ever occurred.

A scientific theory is validated through theory and experiment.

   * No theory exists to show that a worldwide catastrophe cannot occur.
   * No experiment has been performed to show that a worldwide catastrophe
     cannot occur.
   * No theory exists to show that all phenomena are natural phenomena.
   * No experiment has been performed to show that a supernatural
     phenomenon cannot occur.

Evolution is defended based upon the assumption of uniformitarianism.
Because uniformitarianism is not defensible, therefore its application in
the defense of evolution is not valid.

No man was there to both observe and document the formation of the major
geological features of the earth. Neither do the features have dates
attached to them in any coded form.

The idea of gradual sedimentation and fossilization already mentioned are
examples of uniformitarian interpretations. Other examples range from
multiple Ice AgeS and plate tectonics, to such cosmological assumptions as
that the speed of light has always been the same as what it is now
(implying that the universe must be old because it took the light from
stars so long to get here. [Note: This should not be construed as an
endorsement of the Norman/Setterfield light-decay theory])

Multiple Ice AgeS seem to be a basic assumption in geography books and are
spoken of as having occurred in a time frame of at least hundreds of
thousands of years, consequently precluding an earth that is only several
thousand years old. This is nothing more than an assumption, based on other
unverifiable assumptions, including even the assumption that N00,000 layers
of ice were laid down annually.

Yet, in the polar ice has been uncovered large coal deposits and the frozen
remains of animals and plants which used to live there. The meat of some
animals is so well preserved that it has been fed to livestock. Corals,
which can only survive at temperatures above 20 degrees Celsius, frozen
fruit trees, and other tropical life forms are found frozen in the polar
regions.

The interesting thing is that fruit trees have been found frozen with the
fruit still on them and woolly mammoths frozen with food still in their
mouths. What caused them to freeze so quickly?

Plate tectonics assumes that the continents of the earth are riding upon
some huge geologic conveyer belts that meet at the mid-oceanic ridges. But
where do the mechanical forces come from to operate such a mechanism? And
why are there multiple fractures perpendicular to the ridges?

Scientists who accept creation have suggested some reasonable explanations
as alternatives to conventional wisdom. These should not be presented as
scientific facts, or even theories, but working hypotheses:

The presence of a vapor canopy over the earth, similar to that found on
Venus and Saturn's moon Titan, might have created an incredible greenhouse
effect on the earth, making the climate tropical all over the globe.
Genesis 1:7 says, "And God made the firmament (expanse of the sky) and
divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which
were above the firmament."

What may be submitted as one alternative to the "gradual ice age" concept
is that at the time of the flood there was an immense vapor canopy around
the earth which collapsed (the "floodgates of heaven" of Gen 7:11). The
polar regions and significantly beyond were soon frozen. In time, the
global environment and atmosphere stabilized, and a good portion the ice
extending down from the polar regions receded. All this happened orders of
magnitude faster than what is now assumed, yielding a single "ice age."
After the flood, a rainbow was provided as a sign of God's covenant (Gen
9:13-14). (Underneath a world-wide vapor canopy, a rainbow would not be
possible.)

It has been argued, even within the creationist community, that a vapor
canopy is not sufficient in itself to explain the worldwide flood as
documented in the scriptures. Another alternative is that at the time of
the flood, there was an immense subterranean chamber of water ("the
fountains of the great deep" - Gen 7:11) which collapsed under the weight
of the earth above it, spewing water/vapor and mud into the atmosphere
which primed the hydrodynamic cycle and precipitated as rain or was frozen
high in the atmosphere and fell to the earth in the polar regions as ice
cold enough to freeze animals on contact. Perhaps also coal and oil
deposits in the polar regions are there because huge mats of uprooted
vegetation floated there during the Flood.

This latter scenario, referred to as the "hydroplate hypothesis"
contradicts the popular plate tectonics hypothesis (and also possibly the
vapor canopy hypothesis). It also explains (hypothetically) many more
geologic features of the earth. According to this hypothesis the
mid-oceanic ridges are not the intersection of moving plates, but the place
where the earth underneath where the layer above the water first cracked
and gave way bulged up. The continents are not constantly moving on some
geologic conveyer belt, but literally slid on top of the water of the
collapsing subterranean chamber to their present locations where they are
now nearly motionless. The mountains were formed where the continents
eventually hit something and buckled upwards. Paleomagnetic anomalies
showing "reversals" (actually not complete reversals in flux, but reversals
about an average non-zero flux level) reflect originally magnetized
materials that moved away from the mid oceanic ridges. The continental
shelf defines the edge of the original plates and is submersed under only
shallow water because that is where the edge of the newly-formed
continents, rapidly eroded by moving water underneath, submerged and
settled.

An adequate description of the hydroplate hypothesis, its geologic
implications, and a comparison to conventional geologic explanations is
beyond the scope of this document. Furthermore, even within creationist
circles there is contention and debate over competing theories. As an
example, there also exists a "catastrophic plate tectonics" theory, which
is hotly debated against the "hydroplate hypothesis".

The descriptions above are not meant to categorically argue for any
particular catastrophistic theory, but rather to illustrate that there are
alternatives to conventional "scientific" wisdom. This conventional
"wisdom," which is presented as dogma, is based upon uniformitarianism,
which is not defensible.

In any case, once the allowance is made for an all-powerful creator, it is
a small matter to allow for him to have acted supernaturally upon the
earth, which means that a natural, scientific explanation may not even be
appropriate.

References: 5, 11, 13, 14, 18, 19, 44

One of the problems in the creation/evolution dilemma was that we weren't
there to observe either happen. Can we determine how long ago an animal
lived by examining its organic or petrified remains or by examining rocks
found in the vicinity of the dead animal?

Several methods have been proposed for dating of animal remains and rocks
by measuring the decay of radioactive isotopes. The general public tends to
view them as high-tech "hocus-pocus," so people often aren't prepared to
question their validity and tend to assume that the measurements are valid.
But are they?

The following are the major radioisotope dating methods and their
associated problems.

Carbon-14:

Cosmic rays hit Nitrogen-14 in the earth's atmosphere, producing
radioactive Carbon-14. Plants absorb the Carbon-14. Animals eat the plants.
Animals eat animals. Eventually all living things are supposed to have the
same amount of Carbon-14 in them.

When the animal or plant dies, it quits eating and so takes in no more
Carbon-14. The Carbon-14 decays back to Nitrogen-14 over time. Measuring
the amount of Carbon-14 left in the animal remains is supposed to tell you
how long it has been since the animal or plant died.

It is universally accepted, even among evolutionists, that Carbon-14 is
only useful for dating the organic remains of living tissue and that it
only works up to about 20, 30, maybe 60,000 years. So Carbon-14 dating is
irrelevant to the discussion of the time frame of macro-evolution, which is
supposed to have occurred over hundreds of millions of years.

It is assumed that the level of atmospheric Carbon-14 has been constant for
tens of thousands of years, when it has only been measured since the early
part of this century. This is a ratio of 1/1000 over the span of the
proposed measurement period. (Tree-ring dating and other methods of
historical dating have provided some corroborating data for some samples,
however.)

Things like the strength of the earth's magnetic field affect how much
cosmic radiation gets through to the atmosphere (which affects how much
Carbon-14 is produced.) The strength of the earth's magnetic field has
declined since it was first measured in 1835.

It is assumed that the rate of radioactive decay of Carbon-14 has never
changed. However, in the laboratory, it has been demonstrated that the rate
of decay of Carbon-14 can be significantly changed by application of an
electric potential (specifically, 9 standard deviations for a potential
difference of 180 volts in one particular experiment. [1])

It is assumed that no exchange of Carbon-14 between the animal remains and
the environment has occurred since the animal died.

Successive Carbon-14 measurements of individual specimens have been shown
to produce conflicting results, the differences amounting to about a 1:2
ratio. And dating of specimens of known age has produced erroneous results.
For example, why was a fresh seal skin dated at 1300 years? [2] Why was a
living mollusk dated at 2300 years? [3] How does an antler end up 5340,
9310, and 10,320 years old at the same time? [4] How does a piece of bark
end up both 1168 and 2200 years old? [5] How does a mastodon die from the
outside in over a 750 year period of time, 7820 years after it was born?
[6] How does the "prehistoric" village of Jarmo in northern Iraq end up
archeologically occupied for 500 years and radioisotopically occupied for
6000 years? [7]

Potassium-Argon

Potassium-40 decays into Argon-40. When molten lava solidifies, it has some
Potassium-40 in it. Potassium-40 trapped in the rock decays into Argon-40.
The amount of Argon-40 that has formed in a rock since it solidified is
supposed to tell you how long it has been since the rock was formed.

Potassium-40 also decays into Calcium-40. The rate of decay into Argon-40
vs. Calcium-40 is not accurately known. Uranium dating methods (see below)
are used to "calibrate" the Potassium-Argon method. So to begin with,
Potassium- Argon dating cannot be more accurate than Uranium isotope
dating.

It is assumed that no Argon was originally trapped in rock when it
solidified.

It is assumed that there was no exchange of either Potassium or Argon
between the specimen or its environment since it solidified.

It is assumed that the rate of decay of Potassium-40 has not changed since
the formation of the rock. The strength of neutrino flux from cosmic
radiation, which is affected by things like supernovas and the strength of
the earth's magnetic field, which is known to change, are known to affect
decay rates. (Although in this case this does not necessarily explain
sufficient measurement error, it does demonstrate again that the rates are
not necessarily constant.)

Successive measurements of individual specimens have produced different
results, representing inconsistencies on the order of hundreds of millions
or billions of years. The difference can be on the order of a ratio of
1:10.

Measurements using Potassium-Argon have produced results inconsistent with
those obtained using other radioisotope methods.

Measurements of rocks of known age obtained from recent volcanoes using the
Potassium-Argon method have produced erroneous results. Rocks known to be
less than a couple hundred years old have been dated at billions of years
old.

For example, how does an unweathered underwater lava flow that looks 200
years old end up 12 to 21 million years old? [8] How did the minerals in
the Kimberlite pipe in South Africa end up both 68 million and 142 million
years old or the ones in the Breccia pipe from Australia end up both 121
and 911 million years old? [9] How come the 1800 Kaupulehu lava flow in
Hawaii, which men observed come out of the ground, end up 1 to 2.4 billion
years old using Potassium-Argon dating, and 140 to 670 million years old
using Helium dating? [10] How did the Salt Lake Crater on Oahu end up
92-147 million years, 140-680 million years, 930-1580 million years,
1230-1960 million years, 1290-2050 million years, and 1360-1900 million
years old? [10] How did the 1000 year old (C-14) trees in the Auckland
volcanic field of New Zealand get buried under 145,000-465,000 year old
(K-Ar) lava? [11]

Uranium-235

Similar principles and problems as shown above. Uranium-235 decays into
Lead-207, and the amount of Lead-207 is supposed to tell you how old the
rock is.

The original content of Uranium-235 vs. Lead-207 is not known. (It is
simply assumed that there was no Lead-207 to begin with.)

It is assumed that no Uranium-235 or Lead-207 is exchanged with the
environment over the life of the rock. Laboratory experiments have leached
Uranium out of some specimens with a weak acid. [12]

It is assumed that the decay rates have always been constant.

Successive measurements of the same sample often produce different results.

Measurements by this method often disagree with measurements using other
methods.

Uranium-238

Similar principles and problems as shown above. Uranium-238 decays into
Lead-206.

Thorium-232

Similar principles and problems as shown above. Thorium-232 decays into
Lead-208.

Lead-Lead

Similar principles and problems as shown above. Lead-207 decays into
Lead-206.

Rubidium-Strontium

Similar principles and problems as shown above. Rubidium-87 decays into
Strontium-87. (It should be noted that the "Isochron" nature of this method
eliminates only some of the unsubstantiated assumptions.)

----------------------------------------------------------------

The magnitude of the problem can be easily seen. Many assumptions are made
about decay rates, initial conditions, environmental influences, and etc.
The results obtained are inconsistent with successive measurements made
using the same and different dating methods. Measurements made of specimens
of known age produce erroneous results. (We know about these
inconsistencies, ironically enough, because they are usually the subject of
papers by evolutionists attempting to explain them away. Such explanations
demonstrate more circular thought as evolutionists resort to concocting
more unsubstantiated scenarios to explain away data based on the prior
assumption that the dating metric must be good.)

Furthermore, the dating procedures are not testable under controlled,
laboratory conditions over the period of time they are supposed to measure.

It should be noted that dating of fossils is almost never done by measuring
the fossil itself, but by measuring rocks in the vicinity of the fossil. So
it is assumed that a rock in the vicinity of a fossil is the same age as
the fossil.

It can be concluded that radioisotope dating methods lack the theoretical
and experimental foundation needed to be considered reliable indicators of
the age of the specimens being dated.

Finally, keep in mind that age does not imply ancestry. If evolution does
not work in theory or practice, no amount of time added into the scenario
will make it work.

General references: 13, 14, 18, 22,30, 35

It should be pointed out that the age of the earth or life on it cannot be
rigorously demonstrated through any dating method because the method is not
testable over the range of time it is supposed to date. There are always
critical assumptions made which are not verifiable, and a considerable
amount of extrapolation of the results over time.

Some radioisotope dating methods appear to suggest that the earth is
billions of years old. However, many dating methods of at least equal merit
suggest that the earth and life upon it is only several thousand years old
and/or at least contradict the notion that the earth and life upon it is
billions of years old. In all, I have seen a list of about 70 different
dating methods that would instead suggest that the earth and life is
anywhere from N00 to N00,000,000 years old. Given any preconceived age of
the earth, there can be found a dating metric to support it.

Honest scientific inquiry should involve an unbiased quest for data. One of
the requirements for validation of a scientific hypothesis is that it be
subject to falsification. In verifying a hypothesis, you must consider all
data, including that which may contradict your hypothesis. If data is found
which contradict the hypothesis, then this contradictory data must be
accepted and considered, along with the data that supports the hypothesis.

A hypothesis made that isn't subject to falsification falls within the
realm of dogma, rather than scientific inquiry.

The following are examples of some of the dating metrics contradicting the
hypothesis that the earth and life upon it is N billion years old. Keep in
mind that each of these metrics is also subject to limitations due to its
set of unverifiable uniformitarian assumptions, extrapolation of data, and
so forth, and should never be submitted as "proof" that the earth is young.

Population of the earth:

Today the population grows at 2% per year. If we set the population growth
rate at just 0.5% per year, then total population reduces to zero at about
4500 years ago. If the first humans lived 1,000,000 years ago, then at this
0.5% growth rate, we would have 10^2100 (ten with 2100 zeros following it)
people right now. If the present population was a result of 1,000,000 years
of human history, then several trillion people must have lived and died
since the emergence of our species. Where are all the bones? And finally,
if the population was sufficiently small until only recently, then how
could a correspondingly infinitesimally small number of mutations evolved
the human race?

Ancient civilizations:

Written history and archaeological evidence of ancient civilizations dates
back to several thousand years. Beyond that, all traces of civilization
disappear. This is not consistent with a species which is supposed to be at
least hundreds of thousands of years old.

Decaying magnetic field of the earth

We know that the earth's magnetic field has been decaying since the time it
was first measured in 1835. Given the most plausible model of magnetism
being generated by circulating electric currents that are decaying within
the earth, and projecting the numbers backwards, 10,000 years ago the earth
would have a field as strong as a magnetic star which utilizes
thermonuclear processes to maintain a field of that strength. (See general
reference 16.)

Critics of this theory insist on the existence of an electric generator
("dynamo") inside the earth, without theoretical or empirical evidence to
justify such a thing. (Paleomagnetic anomalies are presented as evidence,
but are inferior to the global statistically averaged data used to justify
the young-earth model. Said paleomagnetic artifacts are dated using
old-earth metrics and assumptions.) Again, circular reasoning is employed:
"The earth is old, therefore the magnetic field has not been monotonically
decaying. Because the magnetic field has not been monotonically decaying,
there must be a dynamo. Because there is a dynamo, the magnetism in the
earth has not been monotonically decaying. Because the earth has not been
monotonically decaying, the young-earth model is invalid."

Comets are disintegrating:

Each time a comet swings around close to the sun, the sun causes part of
the comet to disintegrate. It is the tail that we see as a result.
Astronomers have observed that the life of a short-term comet is on the
order of 1,500 to 10,000 years. There are an abundance of short-term
comets. Why aren't they all gone by now? [13]

Critics of the young-earth model hypothesize what they call an Oort cloud,
which supposedly generates comets, even though they have never observed
such a thing, nor can theoretically show that it must exist. Circular
reasoning is employed: "The universe is old, therefore something is
producing the short-term comets. Because something is producing the
short-term comets, therefore the young-earth metric is invalid."

Io, the still-volcanic moon of Jupiter:

Small bodies like Io should have lost the heat and energy that it takes to
be volcanic a long time ago. How can Io still be volcanic after billions of
years? (Leave it to the evolutionist to propose some source of heat and
energy.) [14]

Four stars moving apart

Four stars in the Trapezium of the Orion nebula are moving away from each
other. Their paths can be traced back to a common point of origin 10,000
years ago. [15]

Volcanoes spewing out juvenile water:

As much as 20% of the erupted material in a volcano is water that was
trapped deep within the earth. This water is called "juvenile" water,
because it is assumed to have never been on the surface of the earth
before. About a dozen volcanoes erupt each year. The amount of water spewed
out from all these volcanoes is estimated to be about a cubic mile. There
are an estimated 340 million cubic miles of water in all the oceans, lakes,
and streams on earth. This would imply that there weren't any oceans 340
million years ago. Yet it is said that life originated in the oceans some
1-2 billion years ago. (See general reference 18, p. 389-389), [16] [17]

Volcanoes spewing out lava:

The amount of lava currently being spewed out by volcanoes (using a low
estimate of 0.8 cubic km/year) in 4.5 billion years roughly corresponds to
the volume of all the continents on the earth today (3.3 billion cubic km).
Where did all the lava go? [18], [19]

Helium rising into the atmosphere:

One of the decay products of Uranium and Thorium is Helium-4. Given the
estimated concentrations of Uranium and Thorium in the earth's surface,
current decay rates and the estimated helium content of the atmosphere, the
implication would be that this could not have been going on for
N,000,000,000 years. Based on the numbers used, the calculations I have
seen range from N,000 years to N0,000,000 years. [20], [21], [22]

Substances washing into the sea

Many substances are being eroded, dissolved, and/or otherwise flushed from
the land into the oceans, where they do not return to the their point of
origin. Given the estimated rate of influx of each substance, and given the
current concentration of these dissolved minerals in the sea, and working
backwards, we get values ranging from N00 to N00,000,000 years. [23], [24],
[25], [26], [27], [28], [29], [30]

-----------------------------------------------------------

Again, these are but a few examples of metrics which contradict the far
fewer metrics that suggest a billion-year-old earth. They don't prove that
the earth is young, but they are not less valid than the metrics which
suggest that the earth is old. The inconsistencies between dating metrics
mean that we have no good reason for accepting dating methods that yield
old dates over the dating methods that yield young dates. This is the
principle of falsification which every scientific hypothesis must be
subject to.

Given that both the old-earth metrics and the young-earth metrics are
subject to the same sort of fallacies of assumption, the evolutionist
should be asked to explain why he is such a vehement supporter of the
old-earth metrics and such a vehement critic of the young earth metrics.
Why doesn't he apply the same sort of reasoning he uses to justify the old-
in support of the young-? And if he can so keenly and appropriately point
out the problems with the young-, then why won't he admit to the problems
with the old-?

General references: 5, 9, 14, 15, 16, 18, 35, 44

In considering the issue of creation vs. evolution, we must keep in mind
that a discussion of transitional forms is moot and useless. To the
evolutionist anything looks good enough to be considered a transitional
form, and to the creationist nothing looks good enough to be considered a
transitional form.

There remains, however, the prominent issue of whether there has ever
existed a species of animal that was decidedly sub-human and super-ape (the
so-called "hominids.")

The following is a list of the various "ape-men", who found them, what the
evidence consists of, etc. The information should be current to about 1985.

======================================

Australopithicus africanus, Australopithicus robustus, Zinjanthropus bosei,
Australopithicus afarensis, "Lucy," Paranthropus, Plesianthropus,
Telanthropus, "Skull 1470," Homo habilis.

A juvenile skull was discovered in East Africa in 1924 by Raymond Dart.
Dart projected that an adult would stand 4 feet tall and have the brain
size of a gorilla. An adult was discovered in 1936 by Robert Broom.
Discoveries of various bone fragments and skeletal parts continued by
several others. "Lucy" was a skeleton about 40% complete. The work of Mary
and Louis Leakey, and later their son Richard, gained considerable
publicity through the help of the National Geographic Society. They found
tools in the vicinity of the bones, and assumed that Australopithicus used
them. They found human footprints and assumed that they were not human.
Extensive analysis of the Australopithicene bone structure has called into
question whether the animals ever walked upright. They were long-armed, and
short-legged, and were probably knuckle-walkers, more closely resembling an
orangutan. These animals are no longer considered by most anthropologists
to be man's ancestor, but rather are classified as apes. [31], [32], [33],
[34], [35], [36], [37], [38], [39], [40], [41], [42], [43]

Homo erectus / Africa

Along with the Australophithecenes, Louis Leakey found a skull cap, part of
a femur, and a hip bone, and attributed them to Homo erectus. In 1975,
Richard Leakey found a relatively complete cranium and parts of the rest of
a skull. More finds continued. In 1984, an almost complete skeleton was
found. Limited information is available regarding these latter finds. They
appear to be similar to Neanderthal man in some respects and bear some
resemblance also to some skeletons dug up in the Kow Swamp area in
Victoria, Australia, which have been dated on the order of 10,000 years.
Based upon where the bones were dug up in Africa, it must be concluded that
Australopithecus, Homo Habilis, and Homo Erectus lived contemporaneously.
Underneath all these bones has been dug up the remains of a circular stone
habitation hut which could only have been attributed to Homo sapiens. Thus,
none of them could be man's ancestor, evolutionarily speaking, and one
evolutionist, Geoffrey Bourne, has gone so far as to seriously suggest that
apes evolved from men. [44], [45], [46], [47], [48], [49], [50], [51],
[52], [53], [54], [55], [56], [57], [58]

Homo erectus / Java Man (Pithecanthropus erectus)

A Dutch physician by the name of Dubois found a skullcap (1891), a femur
and two teeth (1892), and a third tooth (1898) near Trinil, Java. The leg
bone appeared human, while the skull resembled that of an ape. These
fossils were found 45 feet apart at a level in the rock which also
contained two human skulls, which Dubois concealed for 30 years (until
1922). Dubois announced at the end of his life that the fossils did not
belong to an ape-man, but that in fact the skull belonged to a giant
gibbon. Further study by anthropologists ascribed the first two teeth to an
orang and the third tooth to a human. [59], [60]

Homo erectus / Peking Man (Sinanthropus pekinensis)

In 1921, Davidson Black found a couple of teeth and, on the basis of this
find, immediately declared that this established evidence for a hominid. In
1928-1929, 30 skulls and 11 mandibles (lower jaws) and 147 teeth were found
at Choukoutien (near Peking, China). The skulls were all bashed in at the
rear, evidence that they were all killed by hunters for food. The question
was, who was the hunter? All the bones mysteriously disappeared sometime
during the period of 1941-1945. A major limestone quarrying industry
existed in ancient Choukoutien, and the skulls were all allegedly found in
heaps of debris from a collapsed limestone hill. Without tangible evidence
we are left with the skeletal reconstructions and work of a man who would
declare that he found a hominid based on a couple of teeth. It has been
suggested that Sinanthropus was either a large macaque or baboon, and that
the workers at the quarry killed them and ate their brains for food. [61],
[62]

Neanderthal Man (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis)

In 1848, workmen at a quarry in Gibraltar found a fairly complete fossil
skull. In 1856, another partial skeleton was found near the village of
Neander in Germany. Professor Schlaafhausen reported the find in 1857 and
gave it the name Neanderthal. Rudolf Virchow, a pathologist, studied the
fossil material and concluded that the Neanderthals had rickets, a disease
caused by Vitamin-D deficiency and resulting in bone deformities that would
account for their awkward appearance. In 1888, the Galley Hill skull, a
very modern-looking skull, was found in strata believed older than
Neanderthal. More modern-looking discoveries were found in 1855 at Ipswich,
and in 1863 at Abbeville. In 1932, a modern human jaw was found in deposits
"older" than Neanderthal. In 1939, Professor Sergio Sergi demonstrated that
Neanderthal walked erect as we do. In 1947, a Neanderthal was discovered to
have lived in a cave after a modern man had inhabited the cave (some have
alleged that this was an "intrusive burial"). The brain capacity of
Neanderthals are found to be on the average larger than the average size of
modern man. It is today generally admitted that Neanderthal man was fully
human. [63], [64], [65], [66], [67], [68], [69], [70], [71], [72], [73],
[74], [75], [76]

Nebraska Man (Hesperopithecus faux pas)

A field geologist by the name of Harold Cook sent Henry Fairfield Osborn,
the director of the American Museum of Natural History, a tooth. Osborn
sent the tooth to be analyzed by specialists, and the consensus was that
the tooth more closely resembled the human tooth than of any known ape, and
concluded that this was the first evidence of an anthropoid ape in the
western hemisphere. A book was published claiming that this species,
Nebraska Man, was halfway between Java Man and Neanderthal Man. A field
expedition was launched to find more remains of the creature. It was found
that Hesperopithecus was in fact a wild pig. [77], [78]

Piltdown Man (Eanthropus dawsoni)

In 1912, William Dawson and A. S. Woodward reported the discovery of an
ape-man in Kent Plateau in England. The skull was broken but the jaw
resembled that of an ape. Mammal bones, stone tools, and an elephant bone
ground to a point were also found. More expeditions at another location
produced a two skull pieces and a single tooth. In 1953, Kenneth Oakley did
chemical tests on the bone fragments and demonstrated that the skull and
the jaw didn't belong together, and that neither belonged to the animal
bones. The material had been chemically treated with iron salts to make it
look old, and the teeth had been filed down to make them look worn. How
could anthropologists be fooled for 40 years? [79]

Ramapithecus

A 1932 find in India by G. E. Lewis. On the basis of a handful of teeth and
fragments of a jaw, it was claimed by Simons and Pilbeam in the 1960s that
this was an evolutionary ancestor to modern man. Pilbeam admitted in 1984
that his conclusions were based more on his preconceived ideas than actual
data. It should be noted that a baboon that lives in high altitudes in
Ethiopia, Theropithicus galada, has teeth and jaw characteristics very much
like Ramapithecus and Australopithicus. Ramapithecus is now generally
classified as essentially the same animal as a fossil orangutan known by
the name of Sivapithecus. [80], [81], [82], [83], [84], [85]

Cro-Magnon Man

There is nothing to differentiate these European finds from modern man. If
anything, they have superior size and brain capacity than what is average
for modern man.

Orce Man

In 1983, a skull fragment was found. A year later, it was determined that
the fragment came from a four-month old donkey. [86]

"Flipperpithecus"

A man by the name of Noel Baez mistook a dolphin's rib for the shoulder
bone of a hominid, as reported in a 1983 edition of Science News. [87]

-------------------------------------------------------------

As can be seen, there just isn't enough substance to build a case for the
existence of ancestral ape-men. The above examples illustrate conclusions
based on preconceived notions, major extrapolations upon scanty finds, and
some outright frauds.

-------------------------------------------------------------

The Flintstones ("Homo hannabarbaras")

In many ways, the cartoon character Fred Flintstone is a better
representation of what have become known as "cave-men" than what is taught
today by modern anthropology. Fred Flintstone is depicted as having modern
intelligence, able to communicate, and lived alongside dinosaurs (as early
man certainly did before the dinosaurs became extinct). Yabba-dabba-doo.

Adam, Eve, and their descendants (Homo sapiens)

The Genesis account gives us reliable historical information about the
first men. They were intelligent, able to communicate, organize societies,
cultivate the land, classify animals and domesticate them, make tools and
weapons, etc. They are indistinguishable from modern man. The first man was
created from out of the dust of the ground. The first woman was created
from the first man's rib. Every human on earth is descended from that first
pair. Estimates based on genealogies in the bible and archaeological
evidence of ancient civilizations suggest that Homo sapiens appeared on the
earth on the order of several thousand years ago.

General references: 6, 11, 13, 14, 35, 44

Science, according to the American Heritage Dictionary, is

     "The observation, identification, description, experimental
     investigation, and theoretical explanation of natural phenomena."

It is important to keep in mind that science only deals with natural
phenomena. Intelligent design, planning and intent is not a natural
phenomena. Miracles are not a natural phenomena. "Logic" and "common sense"
are concepts presented as intuitively obvious, consistently applied, and
profitable, but are certainly not a science. "History" is not a science.

Some have elevated the natural sciences to the level of ideology, such that
all things can ultimately be explained by scientific thought. (Consider
that such a proposition is not a scientific proposition in and of itself,
so it is self-refuting!) In any case, there is no foundation for such
thinking. Rather, science is a discipline which deals only with the
workings of the natural order. It does not invalidate other means of
inquiry, and in fact it requires other methods of inquiry.

When a scientist makes experimental observations, the actual facts of the
observations themselves can't be subject to scientific scrutiny. If this
were not the case, then no scientific progress could be made. Suppose that
we launched a highly accurate clock into orbit and then discovered that it
lost time. Now, you could make an appeal to the science of Newtonian
mechanics and conclude that something went wrong with the measurement. And
as for Lorentz, FitzGerald, and Einstein, you could just state that they
were quacks. A wiser thing to do, however, is to consider the possibility
that Newtonian mechanics needs to be revised. The issue, then, is not
whether a particular observation violates a scientific theory, but whether
the observation was correctly and reliably made. And that is not a
scientific matter.

This last point is worth repeating. In the above example, it is not
Newtonian mechanics (a scientific theory) which invalidates the
observation, but the observation which potentially invalidates Newtonian
mechanics (the scientific theory). The issue is whether the observation was
correctly made, and again, that is not a scientific matter.

I have made assumptions about the validity of certain ancient historical
records (the books of the bible). A defense of the authenticity and
validity of these is beyond the scope of this document on creation vs.
evolution. But it is important to keep in mind that evolutionists also rely
principally on written testimony by reliable witnesses who have observed
events in the course of their experience and written down their
observations. Scientists cannot contradict what are historically confirmed
observations, since historically documented observations are the very basis
for scientific analysis. Scientists should be challenged as to their
objectivity in selecting which authors they consider reliable and which
authors they don't.

Those who have elevated the natural sciences to the level of ideology
desire to scientifically test and judge the authenticity of the bible. But
the bible is not a scientific treatise containing any scientific theories
to be scientifically evaluated. The bible is principally an historical
record of historical events written down by historical witnesses. In fact,
some of what is written documents supernatural phenomena, which is
inherently outside of the realm of any kind of scientific inquiry.

When it is recorded that Jesus turned water to wine at the wedding at Cana,
the issue is not whether that event was "scientifically plausible." The
issue is whether we can rely on the written testimony that states that the
phenomenon did in fact occur. If it did in fact occur, then either there is
something about the natural order that needs to be better explained by
scientific study or the event was simply a violation of the natural order
brought about by a cause outside of the natural order.

"Creation scientists" (at least those who accept the authority of the
Bible) are those who pursue scientific study in light of the facts of
history that the scriptures document. They are not (or at least should not)
be those who suppose that they can scientifically prove creation or any of
the circumstances surrounding it.

Neither evolution nor creation are strictly scientifically defensible. No
scientist was there to observe the origin of life. No scientist has been
able to repeat it in the laboratory. No scientist has been able to
demonstrate a theory that compels the present array of life forms to exist
with their present characteristics. A scientific theory is validated
through experiment and/or theory. Both evolution and creation ultimately
fall outside the realm of scientific verification.

Evolution has been touted as a scientifically defensible theory, but these
essays have endeavored to show that it is not. Creation is intuitively
obvious based on the consistent observation about how complex,
sophisticated designs and codes whose origins have been observed always
have required purpose, planning, and intent. It is confirmed based on
testimony revealed by the Creator. Furthermore, the abrupt and recent
appearance of life is an historically defensible fact, explicitly revealed
to us by the Creator.

Faith, according to the American Heritage Dictionary, is "confident belief,
trust." According to the Bible, it is "being sure of what we hope for, and
certain of what we do not see" (Heb 11:1). It is no mystical or necessarily
religious concept. It is not the religious buzzword some have made it out
to be.

Every time we decide to sit in a chair, we are demonstrating our faith that
this chair will hold us up. And we even sit in chairs that we have never
seen anyone sit in before! Obviously, there are a set of criteria which we
use to decide whether we should place our faith in any particular chair,
that it would hold us up and not collapse just as soon as we sat in it.

When people say things like "it takes more faith to believe in creation" or
"it takes more faith to believe in evolution," they are misusing the word
"faith." It is like saying, "it is more rickety to sit in that chair." The
fact of the matter is that it is a matter of faith to believe in either
creation or evolution. And the issue is, how much faith do you have that
creation (or evolution) took place, and how much faith will you place in
the Creator (or the creation) as the cause for the origin of life, and how
well will your faith stand the test when all is said and done?

In the case of creation vs. evolution, no mortal man was there to observe
the origin of life. The creationist did not observe the Creator create, and
the evolutionist did not observe the life forms evolve. Yet based on a
variety of reasons and criteria each individual purposes to place his faith
in either the Creator or the creation as the cause responsible for the
origin of life. The question is, which is the better substantiated position
to place one's faith in: Creation, or Evolution?

These essays have endeavored to show objectively that there is a good
foundation for believing that the Creator was responsible for the creation,
and that there is no good reason to believe that the creation was
responsible for the creation. Therefore, we should place our faith in the
Creator, and not the creation.

The argument from design is actually the most powerful and obvious defense
for the fact of creation vs. evolution. It is one expression of what has
been written in scripture:

     "...since what may be known about God is plain to them, because
     God has made it plain to them. For since the creation of the
     world God's invisible qualities -- his eternal power and divine
     nature -- have been clearly seen, being understood from what has
     been made, so that men are without excuse." (Romans 1:19-20)

There are four popular objections to the argument from design. The first is
"If design demonstrates a designer, then who designed the designer?"

The answer to that question is actually irrelevant to the design argument.
The argument from design insists that complex and sophisticated designs
demonstrate the existence of a designer. Whether or not that designer was
designed makes no difference to the point that design demonstrates a
designer. Computers are designed by computer engineers regardless of
whether the computer engineers themselves were designed. The reason we know
our Creator was not created is not because of the design argument, but
because he said so, which is based on our acceptance of the record of his
testimony, and is an entirely different matter.

The following is a more rigid definition of the design argument presented:

  1. For all complex and sophisticated things (especially machines, even
     more especially automatic machines) whose origin we have observed, we
     see that it was always through planning and implementation by a
     designer. We therefore apply this reliable and consistent experience
     and observation to those things whose origin we have not observed and
     assume that they likewise were designed.
  2. Further to point 1, the greater the sophistication and complexity of
     something, the more obvious that it was designed and the more
     intelligent and capable the designer.
  3. We are inferring the existence and skill of the designer from the
     complexity of the design, not making statements about the nature of
     the designer (e.g., he must be likewise "complex" in construction).
  4. In all cases of observed design, the creator is apart from that which
     he created and not necessarily bound by all the rules which he caused
     his creation to operate in. The Designer of the universe can be
     assumed to be apart from the universe and not necessarily bound by any
     process or phenomenon which we observe.
  5. From points 3 and 4 above, we can say nothing about the nature of the
     Designer, but only that he exists and has demonstrated awesome power
     and intelligence in our realm, unequaled by anything in the known
     universe. Not necessarily bound by anything we have observed in the
     universe, it is premature to make statements about his nature or abode
     (e.g., he also must be complex, and therefore designed). He himself is
     therefore not necessarily even bound by the principle of the argument
     from design (though perhaps he defined it!)
  6. That God did not himself have a creator is not known from empirical
     observation (i.e. the argument from design), but by his own testimony.
     That however is a different issue, requiring a different defense. In
     any case, it is irrelevant to points 1 through 5 above.
  7. It is important to note that both creationists and evolutionists are
     equally responsible for ultimately attributing phenomena in the
     universe to an "uncaused cause." The creationist says that God caused
     everything but was not himself caused by anything. The evolutionist
     says that the cosmos that we behold (i.e. the natural order) caused
     everything but was not itself caused by anything. In either case,
     someone or something had to be first, or else there would be nobody
     and nothing ultimately responsible for the origin of things. If your
     boss needs to ask his boss, who needs to ask his boss, who needs to
     ask his boss, ad infinitum... permission to give you a raise, then you
     can be sure that you will never get one.

The second objection to the design argument is this: "Crystals and
snowflakes are examples of ordered things spontaneously occurring in
nature." First, this is a weak rebuttal even on the surface, because
crystals and snowflakes are nothing compared to the complex and
sophisticated self-replicating automatic machines that living systems
consist of. Secondly, crystals and snowflakes do not actually demonstrate
complexity, but only very simple order and repetition. They are but natural
consequences of structures at the molecular level which make them up.

The third objection to the design argument goes like this: "The panda's
thumb is an example of poor design." Now, one could embark on a useless
discussion about whether it is indeed poor design or not. For that matter,
we could just as well embark on a useless discussion about whether it is a
design flaw that men aren't given the ability to fly like birds or breath
water like fish. For all we know, it could be an issue of pure aesthetics.

But to begin with, we shouldn't consider ourselves qualified to criticize
the design, since we ourselves have not designed anything of the level of
sophistication of a panda, let alone a single-celled organism. But further
than that, the person stating this objection has not observed the genesis
of the panda, such that he could describe the panda's functionality in
light of the panda's original environment, which is not known for certain
to be the same as it is today. For all we know, the Panda may have been
much better suited in its original environment, regardless of whether he
evolved or was created!

The fourth objection to the design argument is this: "If the design
argument is so intuitively obvious, then why don't more people believe it?"
God only knows. But this is an objection ad populum, and so is invalid. The
validity of a position is not determined by how many people support it. But
as the scripture quoted at the beginning of this essay then proceeds to
elaborate:

     "For although they knew God, they neither glorified him as God
     nor gave thanks to him, but their thinking became futile and
     their foolish hearts were darkened. Although they claimed to be
     wise, they became fools...." (Romans 1:21-22)

There are three objections to the chance issue, all based on the same
theme. The first: "It may have been improbable, but the fact that we are
here demonstrates that the improbable did happen."

This assumes the conclusion in the premise and is circular reasoning.

The second objection is this: "The chances of winning the lottery are one
in a million. But someone has to win the lottery. When someone pulls a
winning ticket, you don't cry foul. Why do you cry foul when you observe
the fact that there is life on earth?"

This is a bad application of a valid example of probability and statistics.
If there are 1,000,000 people in a sample set, each with a 1 in 1,000,000
chance of winning it, then we are not surprised to find 1 person who has a
winning number. The key point is that there were 999,999 people with losing
lottery tickets who could win but didn't, and we could theoretically
collect all those losing tickets to prove that point. In the case of
evolution, the evolutionist has not even specified the sample set to
demonstrate that evolution should be considered probable. In fact, he is
using a sample set of 1 (this biosphere) since he has no examples of
planets that had the right materials and conditions but in which life did
not evolve.

The third objection is this: "97565075027519207409. There! Now I have
successfully typed a random sequence of 20 numbers. Yet there was only a 1
in 100000000000000000000 chance of me typing that number."

Again, this is a bad application of probability and statistics. The number
typed is not meaningful. "Success" was already defined as anything and
everything before the number was randomly typed. So in reality there was a
100000000000000000000 in 100000000000000000000 or 100% chance of success.
If a particular number had been specified in advance, that would be a
different issue. In application, life cannot be construed as anything or
everything. In fact, life as we know it can only exist and operate under
some extremely narrow boundaries.

As a caveat and disclaimer to this final essay, it should be noted that it
is in principle impossible to prove a universal negative. To categorically
exclude all possibilities requires one to have all knowledge of past,
present, and future events, information, and processes. One who is
omniscient puts himself in the position of claiming to be God, which is a
particularly bad image to project.

Rather, it should be kept in mind that the burden of proof remains on the
evolutionists to provide a working hypothesis for the chance formation of
life from non-life. This is something they have not done. All the
evolutionists have done is state their first article of faith: that
increasing complexity occurs spontaneously, given enough time. This
statement of faith is made in spite of the fact that there is no evidence
to support it.

The purpose of the following work is to show the magnitude of the problem
that evolutionists face in their propositions and speculations about life
arising spontaneously. That said, let us proceed.

Most of us have heard of the project called SETI (Search for
Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence). Radiotelescopes are pointed towards outer
space, searching for a coded message among the electromagnetic noise that
bombards the earth from distant sources. It has been said that just one
coded message would prove the existence of intelligence elsewhere in the
universe.

Let us suppose that on one of these radiotelescopes the following message
is received, to the evolutionists' delight:

"Hello. We are the inhabitants of a planet in the Alpha Centauri system,
your closest neighboring star. We have been monitoring radio transmissions
from your planet for several years, and have figured out your English
language. What a coincidence that life evolved on two planets so close
together! Sadly, our society is largely controlled by right-wing
fundamentalist religious quacks who believe in a Creator who created
everything from nothing, and until now they have prevented us from funding
this noble communications project. Now let us tell you a little bit about
what life is like over here, and hopefully in eight years we will hear back
from you...."

Let us suppose that the text of this message continues for the equivalent
of some 133 lines of text 80 characters wide totalling 10658 characters and
1500 words, roughly the size of one of these essays on creation vs.
evolution. How do we know that a message such as this had an intelligent
author, as opposed to being something that just appeared spontaneously out
of random noise?

There are about 60,000 words in the American Heritage Dictionary. Yet, a
random assembly of just 10 alphabetic characters would produce 26^10 = 140
trillion different possibilities. Clearly, meaningful words are a very
small subset of what we would expect to get from random letters.

If we arranged 1500 random words, the result would be 60,000^1500 = 10^7167
possibilites. And even though we cannot begin to count the number of
possible arrangements of words that would result in a meaningful message --
any meaningful message -- we know that meaningful messages are but a
miniscule subset of all the possible word arrangements. One can get an idea
of how small this subset is by repeatedly arranging random words picked
from out of a dictionary and seeing how many arrangements turn out to be
meaningful.

If we were to choose from a set of 80 possible characters, including the
upper and lower case letters, the ten digits, and another eighteen
non-alphanumeric characters, a random assortment of 10658 characters would
produce 80^10658 = 10^20283 possible text strings.

Note that even though we cannot begin to count all the possible text
strings that would constitute a recognizable message, we conclude that the
message has an intelligent author. The message is non-random, containing
only recognizable words, following some specific rules of English syntax,
spelling and grammar. More importantly, the message accomplishes a purpose,
carries out a project, and executes a task, with a clearly defined goal.

If such a message were actually received, neither evolutionists nor
creationists would debate the fact that it had its origin in intelligence,
planning, intent, motive, and purpose.

Now let us consider the chance formation of a protein structure. A protein
consists of a chain of only left-handed amino acids connected by only
peptide bonds, in an arrangement in which the amino acids at approximately
half of the sites (called the "active sites") must be the correct amino
acid. The smallest known protein contains 50 amino acids; the largest, 1750
amino acids.

All proteins are manufactured within a living cell in complex structures
called ribosomes. Each of the some 15,000 ribosomes found in a very simple
single-cell organism, Escherichia Coli, contains 56 proteins and 3
ribosomal RNA molecules in a particular structure. 53 of the 56 proteins in
this structure are unique. The ribosomes in higher organisms may contain as
many as 100 such macromolecules, manufacturing perhaps 50,000+ different
proteins that make up the organism.

A ribosome can be viewed as a machine that manufactures proteins according
to the genetic code that it receives externally from messenger RNA
molecules generated elsewhere in the cell. And the proteins in the ribosome
itself are similarly built according to a genetic code. Altogether, E. Coli
is made up of several thousand different proteins, nucleic acids, and other

The correspondence between code and structure should be noted. Any complex
structure can be represented by a finite amount of information that
describes the structure and how it is built up from raw materials, like the
blueprints for a computer. E. Coli has both the hardware (complex machine)
and the software (code) to not only function but replicate itself.

A ribosome is a highly integrated miniature chemical factory. When
separated into smaller components, the individual components lose their
function.

In order for the simplest living cell to replicate, it must manufacture
proteins. In this analysis, we will consider just the chance formation of
the proteins in a single ribosome.

Note that viruses and bacteriophages are simpler in construction than the
single-cell organism that we are using as a model, but require the prior
existence of a host, so a discussion of their origin is moot.

The total molecular weight of the proteins in the E. Coli ribosome is about
1215000. The molecular weights of the 20 known amino acids range from about
75 for glycine to about 181 for tyrosine. For simplicity, let us use an
average amino acid of molecular weight 132 (asparagine has this molecular
weight) for our calculations. Subtracting 18 for the molecular weight of a
water molecule given up when two amino acids form a peptide bond, we have
132-18 = 114 for the molecular weight of the amino acid residue. This would
give us something on the order of 1215000/114 = 10658 amino acid residues
in the protein structure of a ribosome in E. Coli.

In a random arrangement, the probability of a particular amino acid being
right-handed versus left-handed is 1 in 2. The probability of having a
peptide bond versus a non-peptide bond is about 1 in 2. The probability of
getting the correct amino acid is roughly 1 in 20 (the distribution isn't
quite even). The probability of getting a correct right-handed amino acid
connected with a peptide bond is therefore 1 in 2*2*20 = 80. The
probability of all 10658 amino acids in the ribosome being correct is 1 in
80^10658, which is 1 in 10^20283.

Compare this with the number 10^20283 for the character arrangement in our
hypothetical intelligent SETI message.

Which brings us to point of this exercise: Both the SETI message and the
proteincomponent of the ribosome are information-rich. They both represent
complexityand/or coding that accomplishes a purpose. Why is it then, that
some people would attribute the origin of the former to an intelligent
source, but insist that the latter came about through some
yet-to-be-determined chance processes? And if the codes and complex
structures inherent in life forms on earth cannot be attributed to a
natural origin, shouldn't we conclude that the evidence for
extra-terrestrial intelligence is right under our noses? Why then do some
look to the stars for evidence?

Stating the dilemma a different way, if the evolutionists so dogmatically
hold to the position that life arose spontaneously, regardless of its
sophistication, then shouldn't said evolutionists be ready to reject any
SETI message as being of intelligent origin, regardless of its
sophistication? Why then do they look to the stars for evidence?

So if we shouldn't expect that many proteins to randomly occur in a
functional arrangement, then we shouldn't expect the whole ribosome to
occur. And if we shouldn't expect a ribosome to occur, we shouldn't expect
a functional single-celled organism to occur. And if we shouldn't expect a
functional single-celled organism to occur, we are left with nothing for
higher organisms to evolve from.

In reality, it takes a considerable amount of know-how by scientists with
advanced academic degrees using technologically advanced equipment in a
well- equipped laboratory to synthesize proteins, which is what a ribosome,
a machine too small to be seen by the naked eye, accomplishes. And the
synthesis of a biological structure like a ribosome is currently beyond the
capability of the collective know-how of all of the most intelligent minds
of mankind, let alone a fully functional single-cell organism.

Keep in mind that what we are encountering is in principle a significant
information/complexity problem. Regardless of the exact path which one
proposes to get to a fully functional organism, be it protein evolution or
RNA evolution or anything else, the same level of complexity must be
achieved in the outcome through chance events. The point is that a random,
natural process should not be considered a reasonable explanation for it.
And since time does not imply complexity, the putting together of many
separate events of proportionally better probability over eons of time does
nothing to help solve the dilemma.

It is therefore demonstrated that we shouldn't expect life to have come
about by chance, given what we know. The dogma of life coming about by
chance is reduced to a mere ideology without basis. Furthermore, by
removing the foundation for the common ancestry of living things, the dogma
of the evolution of all present species through mutations + natural
selection, and all the various peripheral issues concerning fossils,
dating, stratigraphy, taxonomy, and etc. are rendered moot, because the
present species cannot be evolved from a non-existent first life form. And
if the origin of the first life form must have required planning and
intent, then it is an even easier matter to say that the origin of the
higher life forms required planning and intent.

References: 1, 4, 7

The following is a resource list of some good (and not-so-good) books,
pamphlets, tracts, and videos that I know of which deal with various
aspects of the creation/evolution issue. These are mostly secondary source
information (i.e. textbooks), but do reference the primary research sources
to allow for further in-depth study in specific areas.

1: Biochemistry
Geoffrey Zubay
The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc, 1983, 1986
Hardbound, 1268 pages

This is a standard introductory college-level secular biochemistry
textbook, assuming a knowledge of introductory college-level general
chemistry as a prerequisite. This book, more than any other in this
resource list (aside from the Bible), instilled in me a sense of awe
concerning the magnificence of God's creation. The final chapter of the
book addresses the origin of life from an evolutionist perspective, and is
amusing to read.

2: Principles of Biochemistry
Albert L. Lehninger
Worth Publishers, 1982
Hardbound, 1011 pages

This is another standard introductory college-level secular biochemistry
textbook. It is easier to understand than Zubay, and is weighted more
towards Biology than Chemistry.

3: Chemical Principles
Masterton/Slowinski
Saunders, 1973 (3rd ed)
Hardbound, 715 pages

This is a standard secular introductory college-level general chemistry
textbook. The last chapter contains an introduction to biochemistry.

4: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics
Robert Weast
CRC Press, 1977 (58th ed)
Hardbound, 2348 pages

This is a standard reference which contains physical constants, formulas,
etc.

5: In the Beginning...
Walter T. Brown, Jr.
Center for Scientific Creation, 1989 (5th ed)
Paperback, 122 pages, $9.00+10% shipping

I put this at the very top of my list to recommend. If you like my outline
and approach, you will appreciate Dr. Brown's as well. (Obviously, I am
quite biased.) He organizes his writings into categories in a tree
structure, with adequate references to support each point. His approach is
extremely objective. He also proposes an interesting model to explain 17
known geological phenomena and the flood based solely on the bursting forth
of the "fountains of the great deep," a.k.a. the "Hydroplate Hypothesis."

6: Bones of Contention
Marvin L. Lubenow
Baker Book House, 1993 (2nd ed.)
Paperback, 295 pages

This book has now become the most authoritative source of information on
human fossils, written by a man who has researched the fossil issue for 25
years. [Note: Material from this book has not yet been incorporated into
essay 16.]

7: The Creation Hypothesis
J. P. Moreland, editor
Intervarsity Press, 1994
Paperback, 335 pages

Difficult reading. This book argues for the creation hypothesis being a
valid scientific pursuit. Very secular approach. Good material on
information and biological origins. Chapter 5 makes the book worthwhile.

8: Creation Scientists Answer Their Critics
Duane T. Gish
Institute for Creation Research, 1993
Paperback, 451 pages

This book does exactly what the title implies. Gish goes into very lengthy
discussions concerning the points and counterpoints of his opponents.
Laborious and lengthy reading, but contains interesting information.

9: The Creation Explanation
Robert E. Kofahl, Kelly L. Segraves
Harold Shaw Publishers, 1975
Paperback, 255 pages, $4.95

This is an excellent treatment which covers evidence in design of life
forms, fossils, the geological strata, dating methods, age of the universe,
age of the earth. Quite a bit of information on the latter topics. However,
last I saw, this book was out of print.

10: The Collapse of Evolution
Scott M. Huse
Baker Book House, 1983, ...4th=1988
Paperback, 170 pages

This is an excellent treatment, covering creation/evolution issues in
geology and paleontology, physics, mathematics, biology, anthropology. It
has appendices listing organizations, creationist scientists throughout
history, a glossary, references, and index.

11: Evolution: The Challenge of the Fossil Record
Duane T. Gish
Creation-Life Publishers (Master Books Division), 1985, ...2nd=1986
Paperback, 278 pages, $8.95

An excellent treatment, concentrating on the fossil record, geologic
column, origin of man. Lots of information on the subject of "ape-men."

12: Evolution: The Fossils say No!
Duane T. Gish
Creation-Life Publishers, 1978
Paperback, 189 pages, $2.95

An earlier and shorter version of the above mentioned book by the same
author.

13: Scientific Creationism
Henry Morris
Master Books, 1974, ...2nd=1985
Paperback, 281 pages, $8.95

An excellent treatment covering a wide range of topics. Considered by most
creationists to be a classic and standard treatment of creationism.

14: What Is Creation Science?
Henry M. Morris, Gary E. Parker
Master Books, 1982, 1987
Paperback, 331 pages, $10.95

This book is an attempt at producing a school textbook on creationism,
assumes that the reader does not have a biblical world-view, and avoids
direct scriptural references. Provides a defense for creation as science
and criticism of evolution as science.

15: It's A Young World After All
Paul D. Ackerman
Baker Book House, 1986
Paperback, 131 pages

A summary of the dating methods that suggest a young age for the earth.
Lots of subjective commentary, very selective about which dating methods to
present, doesn't document the assumptions, but interesting and informative
reading anyway.

16: Origin and Destiny of the Earth's Magnetic Field
Thomas G. Barnes
Master Books, 1983
Paperback

This is a technical monograph in which the author evaluates the magnetic
flux of the earth's magnetic field in recent history and argues that the
earth must consequently be of recent origin.

17: Darwin's Enigma
Luther D. Sunderland
Master Books, 1984
Paperback, 178 pages, $8.95

An OK treatment of fossils and transitional forms. Secular approach.

18: The Genesis Flood
John C. Whitcomb and Henry M. Morris
Baker Book House, 1961, ...29th=1986
Paperback, 518 pages, $11.95

This is a very thorough treatment of the biblical record and scientific
implications of the Flood. Most of the information is pertinent to the
creation/evolution controversy. Considered a classic, if not the classic.

19: The World That Perished
John C. Whitcomb
Baker Book House, 1988, ...3rd=1990
Paperback, 178 pages, $9.95

This is a sequel to The Genesis Flood (which is not a prerequisite), and an
introduction to biblical catastrophism. Easy to read, and more up-to-date.

20: The Natural Sciences Know Nothing of Evolution
A. E. Wilder Smith
Master Books, 1981
Paperback, 166 pages, $7.95

An excellent treatment, specifically dealing with the biochemical
implications in detail (e.g. spontaneous generation of life from non-life),
which is missing from most other books.

21: The Scientific Alternative to Neo-Darwinian Evolutionary Theory
A. E. Wilder Smith
TWFT Publishers (PO Box 8000, Costa Mesa, CA, 92683), 1987
Paperback, 148 pages, $7.95

An excellent treatment, specifically dealing with information sources and
structures, showing that it is necessary to consider "know-how" or an
external source of information in developing a scientific theory on
origins.

22: Science, Scripture, and the Young Earth
Henry M. Morris, John D. Morris
Institute for Creation Research, 1989
Paperback, 95 pages, $4.95

Provides rebuttals to current arguments (especially Davis Young) against a
recent creation and flood geology.

23: Flaws in the Theory of Evolution
Evan Shute
Craig Press, 1961, ...7th=1976
Paperback, 286 pages, $3.50

An OK treatment, not easy reading, not as thorough, but some good
information.

24: How To Think About Evolution, And Other Bible/Science Controversies
L. Duane Thurman
InterVarsity Press, 1977, 1978
Paperback, 144 pages, $5.95

This book deals specifically with what the title suggests. It does not
provide much useful information about creation/evolution, and the
viewpoints are liberal.

25: From Goo To You By Way of the Zoo
Harold Hill
Power Books, 1976, 1985
Paperback, 223 pages, $5.95

If you like mudslinging, this book addresses the issues with all the tact
and maturity that the title suggests.

26: The Great Brain Robbery
David C.C. Watson
Henry E. Walter, LTD., 26 Grafton Road, Worthing, Sussex, 1975-1977
Paperback, 108 pages, 95p.

A very short general treatment, very subjective, but interesting.

27: Here's Proof: Evolution is a Lie
Dennis Miller and Louis Watrous
El Camino Press, 1976
Paperback, 57 pages

Another very short general treatment, subjective, but interesting.

28: Fallacies of Evolution
Arlie J. Hoover
Baker Book House, 1977
Paperback, 85 pages, $2.50

This is a short book that provides a refutation of the arguments for
teaching only evolution in the public schools.

29: Evolution and the Modern Christian
Henry M. Morris
Presbyterian And Reformed Publishing Co., 1967
Paperback, 72 pages, $3.95

This is a very brief treatment of evolution, intended to be easy and quick
reading for a high school or college student, Sunday school class, etc.

30: Unlocking the Mysteries of Creation
Dennis R. Peterson
Master Books, 1987
Hardbound, 207 pages, $18.95

An excellent general treatment of a wide range of topics on
creation/evolution, including some information on ancient civilizations.
This is a children's book, but contains enough information and references
to be valuable for anyone to read. Highly illustrated.

31: Fossils: Key to the Present
Richard Bliss, Gary E. Parker, Duane T. Gish
Creation Life Publishers, 1980, 1984
Paperback, 81 pages, $4.95

This is a children's book which discusses fossils.

32: The Long War Against God
Henry M. Morris
Baker Book House, 1989, 3rd=1990
Hardbound, 344 pages, $21.95

This covers the history and impact of the Creation/Evolution conflict.

33: The Origin of Species Revisited, Vol 1 and 2
W.R. Bird
Philosophical Library 1987, 1989
Hardbound, 1102 pages total, $50.

This is a thorough, high-level scientific/philosophical treatment. It
requires a very high reading comprehension level.

34: The Genesis Record
Henry M. Morris
Baker Book House, 1976, 1989
Hardbound, 716 pages

This is essentially a verse-by-verse commentary on the book of Genesis by a
creationist author.

35: Reasons Skeptics Should Consider Christianity
Josh McDowell, Don Stewart
Here's Life Publishers, 1981
Paperback, 249 pages

A general christian apologetic, of which pages 82-218 contain an assortment
of question vs. answers on the ark and evolution. Goes together with
another book by the same authors, entitled Answers To Tough Questions
Skeptics Ask About the Christian Faith, which contains a few points about
the Flood. Quick, short summaries, ample references. Classic McDowell
treatment.

36: The New Atheism and the Erosion of Freedom
Robert A. Morey
Bethany House, 1986
Paperback, 176 pages

Not a creation/evolution title at all, but contains information very
relevant to understanding the evolutionist mindset. Includes discussion of
atheism, agnosticism, materialism, logical fallacies, etc., debate
transcripts and excerpts, from the author's experience as a Christian
apologist/lecturer/ debater.

37: Evolution: Bone of Contention
Silvia Baker
Evangelical Press (P.O. Box 29, Phillipsburg, NJ, 08865-0029, (201)
454-0505)
1976, ...1986, Paperback, 35 pages

This is a short treatment that gets right to the point and is very
convincing. An excellent and inexpensive thing that looks like a magazine,
and can be passed around or distributed easily, read quickly.

38: Creation or Evolution?(Parts I, II, III)
Winkey Pratney
Pretty Good Printing (Last Days Ministries, Box 40, Lindale, TX, 75771),
1982
Set of 3 Tracts, 12 pages total

These 3 tracts from Last Days Ministries (Keith/Melody Green's
organization) are an excellent treatment of the creation/evolution issue in
a nutshell, with references, a book list, and evangelically oriented.

39: Understanding Genesis
Ken Ham, Gary Parker
Creation Life Publishers, Box 983, El Cajon, CA, 92022 (1-800-999-3777),
1987
Ten 45-minute videotape lecture-presentations, VHS format, $200

This is an excellent series to have in a church library or for group study.
It is authored by two knowledgeable and experienced lecturers on the
subject, packed with information, yet easy to understand.

40: The Genesis Solution
Ken Ham
Films for Christ, 2628 W.Birchwood Circle, Mesa, Arizona, 85202
(602-894-1300)
45 minutes, VHS format

This is a good motivational film for creation evangelism, discussing the
foundation of Genesis and why the creation/evolution issue is so important.

41: The Great Dinosaur Mystery
Films for Christ, 2628 W.Birchwood Circle, Mesa, Arizona, 85202
(602-894-1300)
20 minutes, VHS format

This is a very subjective film, documenting sketchy "dragon" legends and
similar stories, attempting to show that dinosaurs have been around in
recent historical times.

42: Origins: The Origin of the Universe (Episode 1)
Films for Christ, 2628 W.Birchwood Circle, Mesa, Arizona, 85202
(602-894-1300)
30 minutes, VHS format, 1991

This is an excellent film discussing the origins of the universe, arguing
that the universe is young and not old. Features A. E. Wilder-Smith.

43: Origins: The Earth, a Young Planet? (Episode 2)
Films for Christ, 2628 W.Birchwood Circle, Mesa, Arizona, 85202
(602-894-1300)
30 minutes, VHS format, 1991

This is an excellent film discussing dating methods, arguing that the earth
and life on it is young and not old. Features A. E. Wilder-Smith.

44: The Bible
God-breathed
Various translations, ~4000 B.C. to ~70 A.D.
66 books bound together under one cover

This has been around for several thousand years. It is surely the most
authoritative source of information on the subject. This is the only
historical account we have, originating from the only One who was there to
witness it happen. (Excellent reading. A must!)

----------------------------------------------------

The following is a list of a few of the many periodicals available that
address the issues of creation.

Creation Research Society Quarterly
P.O. Box 8263
St. Joseph, MO, 64508-8263
[email protected]
($22 for 4 issues/year)

This publication is a technical, peer-reviewed, scientific periodical
published under the auspices of the Creation Research Society.

Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Journal
P.O. Box 6330
Florence, KY, 41022
(800) 350-3232
($37 for 3 issues/year)

This publication is a technical, peer-reviewed, scientific periodical
published under the auspices of the Creation Science Foundation.

Creation Ex Nihilo
P.O. Box 6330
Florence, KY, 41022
(800) 350-3232
($22 for 12 issues/year)

This publication is a non-technical periodical published for the general
public under the auspices of the Creation Science Foundation.

Acts & Facts
Institute for Creation Research
P.O. Box 2667, El Cajon, CA, 92021
(Free, 12 issues/year)

This publication is a non-technical newsletter/periodical published for the
general public under the auspices of the Institute for Creation Research.

----------------------------------------------------

The following are a few of the many organizations involved specifically in
creation-oriented research and apologetics.

Institute for Creation Research
P.O. Box 2667
El Cajon, CA, 92021
(619) 448-0900
http://www.icr.org

Creation Research Society
P.O. Box 8263
St. Joseph, MO, 64508-8263
[email protected]
http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/crs/crs-home.html

Creation Science Foundation
P.O. Box 6302
Acacia Ridge D.C., Qld, 4110,
Australia

Answers in Genesis
P.O. Box 6330
Florence, KY, 41022
(800) 350-3232
http://www.ChristianAnswers.net/aig/aighome.html

Creation Resource Foundation
P.O. Box 870
El Dorado CA 95623
(800) 497-1454
http://www.sharpe-ideas.com/creation/crf/

Creation-Science Research Center
P.O. Box 23195
San Diego, CA, 92193
(619) 569-8673
http://www.parentcompany.com/csrc.htm

Center for Scientific Creation
5612 N. 20th Place
Phoenix, AZ, 85016
http://www.creationscience.com/

The following is a list of primary source references cited by secondary
sources referenced at the end of essays 14., 15., and 16..

[1]: John Lynde Anderson, "Non-Poisson Distributions Observed During
Counting of Certain Carbon-14 Labeled Organic (Sub)Monolayers," Journal of
Physical Chemistry, Vol. 76, No. 24 (1972), p. 3610.

[2]: Dort, W., Antarctic Journal of the U.S., , 1971, p. 210.

[3]: M.S. Kieth and G.M. Anderson, "Radiocarbon Dating: Fictitious Results
with mollusk shells," Science, (August 16, 1963), p. 634

[4]: G.W. Barendsen, E.S. Deevey, and L.J. Gralenski, "Yale Natural
Radiocarbon Measurements," Science, Vol. 126, p. 911, samples Y-159,
Y-159-1, and Y-159-2

[5]: H.R. Crane, "University of Michigan Radiocarbon Dates I," Science,
Vol. 124, p. 666, sample M-19

[6]: H.R. Crane and James B. Griffin, "University of Michigan Radiocarbon
Dates II", Science, Vol. 127, p. 1100, samples M-280 and M-281

[7]: Charles Reed, "Animal Domestication in the Prehistoric Near East,"
Science, Vol. 130, p. 1630

[8]: C.S. Noble and J.J. Naughton, "Deep-Ocean Basalts: Inert Gas Content
and Uncertainties in Age Dating," Science, Vol. 162, pp. 265-266

[9]: J.F. Lovering and J.R. Richards, "Potassium Argon Age Study of
Possible Lower Crust and Possible Lower-Crust and Upper-Mantle Inclusions
in Deep-Seated Intrusions," Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 69, p.
4897

[10]: J.G. Funkenhouser and John J. Naughton, "Radiogenic Helium and Argon
in Ultramafic Inclusions from Hawaii," Journal of Geophysical Research,
Vol. 73 #14, p. 4602

[11]: Ian McDougall, H.A. Polach an J.J. Stipp, "Excess Radiogenic Argon in
Young Subaerial Basalts from the Auckland Volcanic Field, New Zealand,"
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 33, p. 1485

[12]: M.R. Klepper and D.G. Wyant, Notes on the Geology of Uranium, U.S.
Geological Survey Bulletin 1046-F, 1957, p. 93

[13]: Harold Slusher, "Some Astronomical Evidences for a Youthful Solar
System," Creation Research Society Quarterly, Vol. 8, June 1971, p. 55-57

[14]: "Eyes on Jupiter," Life, May 1979, p. 46

[15]: Harold Slusher, "A Young Universe," Bible-Science Newsletter 13,
(Jan. 1975): 1ff

[16]: Carl Fries, Jr., "Volumes and Weights of Pyroclastic Material, Lava,
and Water Erupted by Paricutin Volcano, Michoacan , Mexico," Transactions,
American Geophysical Union, Vol. 34, August 1953, p. 615

[17]: Gary Webster, "Volcanoes: Nature's Blast Furnaces," Science Digest,
Vol. 42, November 1957, p.7.

[18]: J. Tuzo Wilson, "Geophysics and Continental Growth," American
Scientist, Vol 47, March 1959, p. 14.

[19]: Carl Fries, Jr., "Volumes and Weights of Pyroclastic Material, Lava,
and Water Erupted by Paricutin Volcano, Michoacan , Mexico," Transactions,
American Geophysical Union, Vol. 34, August 1953, p. 611

[20]: G.E. Hutchinson, "Marginalia," American Scientest, Vol. 35, January,
1947, p. 118.

[21]: Melvin A. Cook, "Where is the Earth's Radiogenic Helium?" Nature,
Vol. 179, January 26, 1957, p. 213.

[22]: D.R. Bates, "Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere," The Earth
and Its Atmosphere, (New York, Basic Books, Inc., 1957), p. 107

[23]: Stuart E. Nevins, "Evolution: The Ocean Says No." Impact Series, ICR
Acts and Facts, Vol. 2, No. 8, October, 1973.

[24]: Dudley J. Whitney, The Face of the Deep (New York, Vantage Press,
1955)

[25]: Salman Bloch, "Some Factors Controlling the Concentration of Uranium
in the World Ocean," Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta., Vol. 44, 1980, p.
373-377.

[26]: J.p. Riley and G. Skirrow, Chemical Oceanography, (New York, Academic
Press, Vol. 1, 1965), p. 164.

[27]: Harold Camping, Creation Research Society Quarterly, Vol. 11, June,
1974, p 39-45

[28]: A.S. Pearse and Gordon Gunter, "Salinity," Treatise on Marine Ecology
and Paleoecology, Vol. I, Ch. 7, Geological Society of America Memoir 67,
1957, Tables I and II.

[29]: Sir Cyril S. Fox, Water (New York, Philosophical Library, 1952), p.27

[30]: Harold F. Blum, Time's Arrow and Evolution, (Princeton, N.J.,
Princeton University Press, 1951), p. 53.

[31]: S. Zuckerman, J. Roy. Col. Surg. Edinburgh, Vol. 11 p. 87, 1966.

[32]: S. Zuckerman, Beyond the Ivory Tower, Taplinger Pub. Co., New York,
1970, p 75-94.

[33]: C.E. Oxnard, Nature, 1975, Vol. 258, p. 389-395

[34]: C.E. Oxnard, Homo, 1981, Vol. 30, p. 242-243

[35]: C.E. Oxnard and F.P. Lisowski, American Journal of Physical
Anthropology, 1980, Vol 52, p. 116

[36]: B. Wood, Nature, 1976, Vol. 262, p. 331

[37]: C.E. Oxnard, University of Chicago Magazine, Winter 1994, p 11-12

[38]: M.D. Leakey, R.L. Hay, G.H. Curtis, R.E. Drake and M.K. Jackes,
Nature, 1976, Vol. 262, p. 460.

[39]: M.D. Leakey and R.L. Hay, Nature, 1979, Vol 278, p. 317.

[40]: R.E.F. Leakey, The Making of Mankind, E.P. Dutton, New York, 1981, p.
40-42

[41]: D. Johanson and M.A. Edey, Lucy the Beginnings of Humankind, Simon
and Schuster, New York, 1981, p. 245-252

[42]: T.D. White, Science, 1980, Vol. 208, p. 175

[43]: I. Anderson, New Scientist, 1983, Vol. 98, p. 373

[44]: L.S.B. Leakey, Nature, 1961, Vol 189, p 649

[45]: M.D. Leakey, Olduvai Gorge, Vol. 3, 1971, Cambridge University Press,
p.24, 272

[46]: A.J. Kelso, Physical Anthropology, 1st ed.., J.B. Lippincott Co., New
York, 1970, p.221.

[47]: R.E.F. Leakey and A. Walker, Nature, 1976, Vol. 261, p 572, 574.

[48]: R.E.F. Leakey, Nature, 1974, Vol. 248, p. 653.

[49]: M.D. Leakey and R.E.F. Leakey, Koobi Fora Research Project, Vol 1,
Clarendon, Oxford, 1978.

[50]: A. Walker, M.R. Zimmerman, and R.E.F. Leakey, Nature, 198, Vol 296,
p. 248.

[51]: C. Joyce, New Scientist, 1984, Vol. 104, p.8

[52]: S. Gilbert, Science Digest, 1985, Vol. 93, p. 28.

[53]: B. Bower, Science News, 1984, Vol. 126, p. 260.

[54]: R. Lewin, Science, 1984, Vol. 226, p. 529.

[55]: B. Rensberger, The Washington Post, 10/19/1984, p. A1.

[56]: A.G. Thorne and P.G. Macumber, Nature, 1972, Vol. 238, p. 316

[57]: J. Gribben and J. Cherfas, New Scientist, 1982, Vol. 91, p. 592.

[58]: Modern People, Vol. 1, p.11, 4/18/1976.

[59]: W.S. Howell, Mankind in the Making, Doubleday, Garden City, NewYork,
1967, p. 155-156.

[60]: M. Boule and H.V. Vallois, Fossil Men, Dryden Press, New York, 1957,
p. 118, 121, 123, 126.

[61]: M. Boule and H.V. Vallois, Fossil Men, Dryden Press, New York, 1957,
p. 130-146.

[62]: P. O'Connell, Science of Today and the Problems of Genesis, Book I,
Christian Book Club of America, Hawthorne, CA, 1969.

[63]: F. Ivanhoe, Nature, 1970, Vol. 227, p. 577.

[64]: E. Trinkaus and W. W. Howells, Scientific American, 1979, Vol. 241
(6), p. 118.

[65]: M. H. Day, Guide to Fossil Man, 3rd edition, The University of
Chicago Press, Chicago, 1977.

[66]: R.B. Eckhardt, Scientific American, 1972, Vol. 226 (1), p. 94.

[67]: Theodosius Dobzhansky, "Changing Man," Science, 1967, Vol. 155, p.
410.

[68]: "Neanderthals Had Rickets," Science Digest, Feb. 1971, Vol 69, p. 35
(references article by Francis Ivanhoe in Aug. 8, 1970 issue of Nature).

[69]: Francis Ivanhoe, "Was Virchow Right About Neanderthal?", Nature, Vol.
227, p. 557.

[70]: J.S. Weiner, Man's Ancestry, New Biology #5, 1948, p. 87, cited in
Bolton Davidheiser, Evolution and Christian Faith, Grand Rapids: Baker Book
House, 1969, p. 162.

[71]: Wilhelm Koppers, Primitive Man and His World Picture, London: Sheed
and Ward, 1952, p. 221, cited by [70] below:

[72]: A.C. Custance, The Influence of Environmental Pressures on the Human
Skull, The Doorway papers #9, Ottawa: privately published, 1957, p. 3, 6.

[73]: Ashley Montagu, Man: His First Two Million Years, New York: Dell
Publishing, 1969, p. 79

[74]: A.C. Blanc and Sergio Sergii, "Monte Circeo," Science, Vol. 90, 1939
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[75]: A. C. Custance, "The Fallacy of Anthropological Reconstructions," the
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[76]: J.B. Birdsell, Human Evolution, Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1972,
p. 280.

[77]: Illustrated London News, June 24, 1922.

[78]: W.K. Gregory, Science, 1927, Vol. 66, p. 579.

[79]: J.S. Weiner, The Piltdown Forgery, Oxford Universeity Press, 1955.

[80]: R.B. Eckhardt, Scientific American, 1972, Vol. 226 (1), p. 94.

[81]: D.R. Pilbeam, Nature, 1982, Vol. 295, p 232.

[82]: W. Herbert, Science News, 1982, Vol 121, p., 84.

[83]: D.R. Pilbeam, Natural History, 1984, Vol 93, p. 2.

[84]: B. Rensberger, Science 84 1984, Vol. 5 (1), p.16.

[85]: D.R. Pilbeam, The Evolution of Man, Funck and Wagnalls, New York,
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[86]: Moline (Illinois) Daily Dispatch, May 14, 1984.

[87]: W. Herbert, Science News, 1983, Vol. 123, p. 246.

	Garth... I don't think you gave us enough information here!  :-)

I want to briefly summarize the changes in this version of my paper.  The most
significant changes are as follows:  I converted the text-only document to html
format, so that it can be most easily read using a web browser.  I added more
specific references at the end of each essay, pointing to my general list of
references at the end.  I added more examples of discordant radioisotope dates
to essay 14.  I footnoted essays 14, 15, and 16 (radioisotope dating, young
earth, and ape-men essays) with primary source references that were cited by
the secondary sources that I used.  I removed the crater-creep young-earth
metric, due to it being controversial even among young-earth creationists.  I
corrected punctuation errors.  And I corrected some other minor errors in my
text that were brought to my attention. 

For those who have read the previous version and have only a casual interest
in my paper, it is probably not worthwhile for you to re-read it.  However,
anyone who is holding private copies of the paper should definitely replace
them with this one.

The new document is now most effectively viewed using a web browser.  It is
located at http://www.ultranet.com/~wiebe/e.htm

The text-only copy that I posted has dropped all italic and bold text emphasis,
which in my previous text-only versions I denoted with "*" and "_" characters.
If you must have a text-only version, I would recommend just reading the raw
html file, which I endeavored to keep readable even in that format.  Or, you
could do a search and replace of the <i>, </i>, <b>, and </b> strings in the
html file, followed by a "save as" text-only directive in the web browser.
(this is probably what I should have done to begin with, but I'm not going to
go back and redo it now.) 

As before, I have granted this paper to the public domain, so that it is
completely free of copyright restrictions.

I just found that Netscape/Alpha/OSF will write out a postscript file in
the "Save as" menu (Netscape/Win3.1x and Netscape/Win95 don't).  I printed 
out a copy and saw that the bold, italics, and larger heading fonts were
retained. 

I also generated a plain text file that restores the "*" for bold and "_"
for italics/underline.

So now altogether I have the file in three different formats.  They can be
copied either from the Ultranet website or internally from VMS as follows: 

HTML file:  http://www.ultranet.com/~wiebe/e.htm
            netcad::kali$user23:[wiebe]e.htm

Plain text:  http://www.ultranet.com/~wiebe/e.txt
             netcad::kali$user23:[wiebe]e.txt

Postscript:  http://www.ultranet.com/~wiebe/e.ps
             netcad::kali$user23:[wiebe]e.ps