| T.R | Title | User | Personal
Name | Date | Lines |
|---|
| 245.1 | Introduction | TLE::SAVAGE | | Thu Oct 05 1995 13:33 | 1246 |
| 245.2 | Miscellaneous topics | TLE::SAVAGE | | Thu Oct 05 1995 13:35 | 929 |
| 245.3 | Denmark | TLE::SAVAGE | | Thu Oct 05 1995 13:37 | 1188 |
| 245.4 | Finland | TLE::SAVAGE | | Thu Oct 05 1995 13:40 | 1825 |
| 245.5 | Iceland | TLE::SAVAGE | | Thu Oct 05 1995 13:46 | 824 |
| 245.6 | Norway | TLE::SAVAGE | | Thu Oct 05 1995 13:47 | 780 |
| 245.7 | Sweden | TLE::SAVAGE | | Thu Oct 05 1995 13:48 | 1285 |
| 245.7 | Sweden | TLE::SAVAGE | | Mon May 20 1996 16:59 | 2019 |
| 245.6 | Norway | TLE::SAVAGE | | Mon Sep 09 1996 12:51 | 758 |
|
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A Frequently Answered Questions (FAQ) file for the newsgroup
S O C . C U L T U R E . N O R D I C
*** PART 6: NORWAY ***
Index
6.1 Fact Sheet
6.2 General information
6.2.1 Geography, climate, vegetation
6.2.2 Economy
6.2.3 Population, language, culture
6.2.4 Government
6.3 History
6.4 Main tourist attractions
6.4.1 Bergen
6.4.2 Oslo
6.4.3 Trondheim
6.4.4 Hurtigruta
6.5 Norwegian literature
6.6 Sons of Norway
6.7 Dictionaries and other study material
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: 6.1 Fact Sheet
Name: Kongeriket Norge (Bokm�l)
Kongeriket Noreg (Nynorsk)
Telephone country code: 47
Area: 323,878 km2 / 125,065 sq mi.
Overseas territories:
Svalbard 62 700,0 km�
Jan Mayen 380,0 km�
Bouvet Island 58,5 km�
Peter I Island 249,2 km�
Land boundaries: Sweden, Finland, Russia
Terrain: mostly high plateaus and rugged mountains broken by fertile
valleys; small, scattered plains; coastline deeply indented
by fjords; arctic tundra in north
Highest point: Glittertinden, 2,472 m (8,110 ft)
Natural resources: crude oil, copper, natural gas, pyrites,
nickel, iron ore, zinc, lead, fish, timber,
hydropower
Population: 4,294,876 (1992)
Population density 13.3 persons per km� (34.3 per sq mi).
Distribution: 71% urban, 29% rural. (1990)
Average annual growth: 0.5%. (1992)
Life expectancy: women 81; men 74. (1992)
Infant mortality: 7 per 1,000 live births. (1992)
Capital: Oslo (480,000) (1995)
Other major towns: Bergen (220,000), Trondheim (143,000),
Stavanger (103,000) (1995)
Flag: a blue Nordic cross outlined in white on a red background.
Type: Constitutional monarchy
Head of state: King Harald V
Languages: Norwegian (two written forms: Bokm�l and Nynorsk). Small
Finnish- and Saami-speaking minorities. The North Saami
language has official status in the northern parts of the
country.
Currency: krone (Norwegian crown, NOK). For the current exchange
rate, see the URL <http://www.dna.lth.se/cgi-bin/kurt/rates>
Climate: temperate along coast, warmed by the Gulf stream; colder
interior. Rainy year-round on west coast. Average temp. in
Oslo -7�C - 2�C in Jan., 13�C - 22�C in July.
Religion: Evangelic-Lutheran (88%) (official state-religion)
Exports: petroleum and petroleum products, natural gas, fish,
aluminium, ships, pulp and paper.
------------------------------
Subject: 6.2 General information
6.2.1 Geography, climate, vegetation
Norway is located on the Scandinavian peninsula; its long, craggy coast
forms the western margin of the peninsula and fronts the Atlantic Ocean
(sometimes known as the Norwegian Sea) for most of the country's length. To
the southwest the North Sea separates Norway from the British Isles, and
directly to the south the Skagerrak separates it from Denmark. In the east
Norway shares an extensive border with Sweden and for a shorter one with
Finland and Russia in the north.
From north to south, Norway is about 1,770 km long, but for much of the
distance it is very narrow, exceeding 160km of breadth only in the south.
About one third of the country lies within the Arctic Circle, where the sun
shines 24 hours at the height of the summer. Characteristic of the terrain
are rugged mountains interrupted by valleys that cut into the land. Along
much of the coast cliffs drop impressively to the sea, forming the fjords
which are among the most distinctive features of Norwegian geography. The
longest and deepest of them is the Sogne Fjord. About 150,000 offshore
islands serve as a barrier that helps to protect Norway's coast from
Atlantic storms. Among these, the Lofoten Islands are the largest and also a
very popular tourist attraction.
The climate is temperate, and the severity of winter along the coast is
moderated by southerly air currents brought in above the waters of the North
Atlantic Drift, which is warmed by the Gulf Stream. Summers are relatively
cool throughout the country; rainfall is high everywhere, most of all on the
coasts, of course. The rivers contain abundant salmon and trout, which are
among the country's most famous exports. Spruce and pine are the most common
trees in Norway's forests, and deciduous trees, such as birch and ash, are
common in the lowlands. In the mountain regions, heather is abundant, as
well as low bushes that provide numerous delicious berries. Timber is one of
the foremost natural resources. In addition, Norway has tremendous resources
in its offshore oil and gas fields in the North Sea as well as in the
hydroelectric potential of the numerous rapids and waterfalls. Iron and
copper are also mined.
6.2.2 Economy
Only about 3% of Norway is arable land; for this reason Norway's main source
of livelihood has traditionally been fishery. Norway emerged as an
industrial nation from the beginning of this century, partly due to local
elites investing money in shipbuilding, woolspinning, timber and pulp
production, and partly because of foreign companies building up on
electrochemical industry based upon cheap hydro-electric power. Norway has
also had one of the biggest merchant fleets of the world. The financial
surplus made by this type of service made it possible to outweigh the
deficit of trade with other countries, and hence is an important economic
and political factor in Norwegian history. Production of petroleum and gas
has, however, become the foremost industry with the discovery of offshore
fields. Food, beverage, and tobacco processing rank second. The manufacture
of transportation equipment, primarily ships and boats (the major export),
ranks third, followed by production of metal and metal products.
6.2.3 Population, language, culture
Norway's population is primarily Germanic. The largest ethnic minority are
Saami (Lapps) living Northern Norway (Finnmark) who number about 20,000; a
few thousand Norwegian Finns (Kvens) live in northern Norway. Norwegian is a
Germanic language developed from the Old Norse spoken in the viking age; it
is closely related to both Danish and Swedish. Norway has hundreds of
dialects of spoken Norwegian (corresponding to different geographical
regions or locales) and two official written norms, Bokm�l and Nynorsk.
Bokm�l, which has its basis in large part in the Danish spoken during the
period of Danish rule, serves as the written norm for most of the dialects
of the larger urban centers. Nynorsk, created by the philologist Ivar
Andreas Aasen (1813-96) who drew it from the old rural dialects that
preserve Norwegian as it descended from Old Norse, serves as the written
norm for most of the dialects of rural areas and some smaller urban centers.
Norway, while becoming increasingly urbanized, is still one of the least
urbanized countries in Europe. Population is extremely sparse in northern
Norway and inland; except for Iceland, it is the lowest in Europe.
It's worth to note that both Nynorsk and Bokm�l are pure written languages.
No one actually speaks these languages - in Norway all spoken languages are
regarded as dialects. But one has to remember that over 80% of the pupils in
Norwegian schools chose to learn Bokm�l, and that the vocabulary of Bokm�l
is influenced by Danish whereas the vocabulary of Nynorsk lies closer to
Swedish. The minority language Nynorsk is thus protected by laws, ensuring
for instance that at least 25% of the radio and tv transmissions are in
Nynorsk, and a national theater Det Norske Teatret playing in Nynorsk,
Frequently questions about common Scandinavian names come up in the
newsgroup. The national statistical office of Norway has made tables over
the most common names to make your choice easier. :-)
Norway has a strongly developed tradition of folk music; its most
distinguished classical composers were Edvard Grieg (1843-1907), Christian
Sinding (1856-1941), and Johan Svendsen (1840-1911), all of whom made much
use of traditional music. The painting of Edvard Munch (1863-1944) has
achieved worldwide recognition. Gustav Vigeland (1869-1943) produced a vast
body of sculpture, which has been collected in Frogner Park in Oslo. For
Norwegian literature, see section 6.5.
6.2.4 Government
Norway is a hereditary constitutional monarchy, with a constitution that was
drafted in 1814. It gives broad powers to the king, but the council of
ministers, headed by the prime minister, generally exercises this power as
king in council. The 165 members of the Storting, or parliament, are elected
for a fixed term of 4 years by all Norwegians 18 years of age or older.
The major political parties are the Labor party (Arbeiderpartiet), the
largest single party, the Conservative party (H�yre), and the Center Party
(Senterpartiet). The Labor party, which was responsible for creating the
social-democratic welfare state, headed the government for 37 years during
the period 1935-81. A debate about high taxes and rising inflation caused
the Labor party to lose ground to center-right groups. The Conservatives
under Kare Willoch were in office from 1981 to 1986, when they were ousted
by Labor, led by Gro Harlem Brundtland, Norway's first woman premier.
Brundtland has since resigned as the party leader (the office is currently
held by Torbj�rn Jagland), but still represents the party as the prime
minister. In the current election period (1993-1997), Senterpartiet (Center
Party) is bigger than H�yre.
------------------------------
Subject: 6.3 History
A chronology of important dates:
800's
The bloody conflicts between tribal kingdoms, as well as a craving for
adventure, prompted Norwegians to leave their lands in what are known
as Viking voyages. Warriors from the Viks, or fjords, raided throughout
western Europe and into the Mediterranean.
890's
Harald H�rfagre ("fair-hair") unites Norway to a single kingdom.
Ireland falls under Norwegian rule. Iceland colonized.
995 King Olav Tryggvason converts to Christianity.
1030 The battle of Stiklestad, in which Olav Haraldsson (canonized as St.
Olav) is killed. The pilgrimages to his grave in Nidaros (Trondheim)
begin.
1066 Harald H�rdr�de killed in the battle of Stamford Bridge while
attempting to conquer England. Viking raids come to an end.
1184 After a civil war, the illegitimate son of King Sigurd, Sverre, is
acknowledged as sole king. He consolidated the power of monarchy,
created a new nobility and replaced an aristocratic administration with
royal officials. His firm hand in ruling the church led Pope Innocent
III to excommunicate him and lay Norway under interdict.
1261-62
Greenland and Iceland are subjected to Norwegian rule.
1266 King Magnus VI Lagab�ter (Law-Mender) ended a lingering war with
Scotland by selling the Isle of Man and the Hebrides to Scotland.
1274 Magnus VI introduces a general code of laws which remains in use for
more than four centuries, replacing local legal systems with a unified
code for the entire kingdom. It strengthened the position of the
monarch by treating crime not as a private matter but as an offense
against king and country. Magnus also promulgated municipal laws and
accepted a basically independent status for the church.
1349-50
Black plague, "Svartedauen", kills one third of Norways inhabitants.
1379 Marriage ties linked Norway with both Sweden and Denmark, and
Margarethe I of Denmark, the wife of Haakon VI,succeeded in gaining
control of the country. At the end of the 14th century the Norwegian
royal house died out, and the nobles elected Erik of Pomerania,
Margarethe's grandnephew, as their king. Erik ruled nominally for
Margarethe, who united Norway, Sweden, and Denmark in the Union of
Kalmar.
1536 Norway becomes a subject of the Danish crown, little more than a Danish
province. Danish becomes the written language of Norway. Reformation
makes Norway Lutheran.
1645 The provinces of J�mtland and H�rjedalen are ceded to Sweden after
Denmark-Norway's participation in the Thirty Years' War. In 1658,
Bohusl�n is lost to Sweden, too.
1716-18
Sweden attacks Norway, but has to retreat when king Karl XII is killed
at Fredrikshald.
1814 The peace treaty of Kiel gives Norway to Sweden. Norway declares
independence at Eidsvoll, but after a short war against Sweden Norway
agrees to a personal union with Sweden. The Norwegian constitution was
written.
1905 The union with Sweden falls apart and Norway becomes an independent
kingdom. The Danish prince Karl becomes king Haakon VII of Norway.
1940 Germany attacks Norway on 9th of April, and after two months of
resistance completes the occupation. The Norwegian king and government
flee to England. The leader of Norways National Socialist party, Vidkun
Quisling, is nominated by Hitler to form a puppet regime.
1941-45
The Norwegian resistance, "Hjemmefronten", is organized. With it's
50,000 members it made life more difficult for the Nazi occupiers in
Norway, while many Norwegians joined British or American forces to
fight the Germans. The Norwegian merchant fleet played a vital role in
aiding the Allies. Although it lost half of its fleet, the country
recovered quickly after the war.
1945 Germany surrenders to the Allies and the Nazi-occupation ends in
Norway.
1949 Norway joins NATO.
1957 Olav V becomes king after the death of Haakon VII.
1970's
Large oil finds in the North Sea make Norway prosperous.
1972 Norway holds a referendum about joining the EEC; the people vote "NO".
1991 On Olav's death in January, his son Harald V succeeded him as the king
of Norway.
1994 A referendum about joining the EU will was held November 27-28th.
Again, the Norwegians voted "NO" by a clear majority and thus remained
outside the union while Sweden and Finland joined.
------------------------------
Subject: 6.4 Main tourist attractions
6.4.1 Bergen
Bergen located about 300 km west of Oslo, on a sheltered inlet of the North
Sea, it is an important port and the country's second-largest city. Warm
Historical landmarks include the King Haakon's Hall (1261), St. Mary's
Church (12th century), the Rosencrantz Tower (1562) and the old wooden
merchant's quarters (Bryggen) at the harbour. One of the Bryggen buildings
(Finneg�rden) houses a Hansaetic Museum, another (modern one) houses a
medieval museum (Bryggens museum). The city also has a university (1948) and
National Theater (1850), and it was the birthplace of the composer Edvard
Grieg and the violinist Ole Bull. Fantoft stave church (built 1150) and
Grieg's home Troldhaugen are located a short distance to the south of the
city.
The city was founded in 1070 by King Olaf III; it became a leading trade
center and Norway's capital during the 12th and 13th centuries. It joined
the Hansaetic League in the 14th century, and German merchants from the
league developed trade monopolies here that lasted into the 18th century.
Occupied during World War II by the Germans, the city suffered heavy damage
during Allied bombings.
Bergen is surrounded by mountains low enough to be climbed on foot but
sufficiently high to offer a great view. There are many good paths for
hikers, but there are also a cable cars going to the highest peak, mount
Ulriken (606m above sea), and to Fl�yen (314m) which is a bit closer to the
centre.
<The following from an article by Daniel R. Juliano>
I am not sure how you are getting from Bergen to Oslo, but I would suggest
the beautiful scenic train that takes you between the two if you are not
flying. It stops quite often and lets you get out in the mountains and look
around. It is warm up there, yet there is tons of snow. At least there was
when I was there two years ago this month.
If you could get to Oystese and see the Hardanger fjord that is the most
beautiful one I ever saw. But, you have to take a bus or drive there. When
we were there the buses were on strike (of course) and we rented a car.
Scary. You have to drive on these huge mountains with no guard rail where
you are literally one foot from the edge and you have to go through huge
tunnels. A police man actually pulled us over for going to slow. :)
We did take a boat tour in Bergen of the fjords which we enjoyed. My family
went to see Grieg's house. They enjoyed that. They also saw the stave
church. I didn't go along to those so I don't know if I should recommend
them.
On most days in Bergen there is a fish market in the main part of town which
is quite interesting. They sell fish that they have just caught, as well as
fresh fruit, flowers, bread and handicrafts. It is closed on Sundays.
Oh, we also went on a tour of some church and of the Hansa houses. That was
neat. Ok, I'll stop. Again. If you have any more specific questions, just
ask.
<From: Jan Setnan>
I always recommend taking the boat from Bergen to Balestrand in the evening.
Then the express ferry from Balestrand to Fl�m. The trip from Bergen to Fl�m
will give you an impressive view of the fjords. Then you take the nighttrain
flom Fl�m to Oslo, arriving the next morning.
The boat from Bergen to Balestrand may be filled with tourists so you
probably should reserve tickets. But the ferry from Balestrand to Fl�m
should give you no problems. The train tickets you should reserve
beforehand. The luggage is another problem travelling from boat to boat to
train. If you have several items, you could send most of it with the train
from Bergen to Oslo, and only take the necessary minimum with you on the
boats. The boat ticket from Bergen to Fl�m is about $65.
<From: Melvin Klasse>
When I went to Bergen, in early-July 1988, the "Tourist Information Centre"
(*very* close to the SAS Hotel in Bergen) had all sorts of accomodation
available, from a "pension" (bed & shared bathroom & NO-breakfast) to
"tourist-class" hotels.
* Get an umbrella -- if it isn't raining, you're not in Bergen!!!
* Walk around the Fish Market, of course.
* The WW II "War Resistance" museum chronicles the time of the German
presence.
* Take the Fl�ybanen (train ride at 23 degrees "up" the hill).
* See Edward Greig's summer-house "Troldhaugen".
* Make reservations for dinner & entertainment with "Fana Folklore".
6.4.2 Oslo
Oslo lies at the head of Oslo Fjord, about 97 km from the open sea. The city
first occupied the small �kershus Peninsula, where a fortress was built in
1300. Oslo was founded about 1050 to the east of the present city. Early in
the 17th century fire destroyed the town, mostly built of wood. King
Christian IV ordered the city to be rebuilt on the �kershus Peninsula below
the fortress, which could protect it. The new city was laid out on a square
plan and was named Christiania after its founder (the name Oslo was
readopted in 1925).
The city remained small until the 19th century; in 1814, it's population was
only 11,200. That year, Norway was separated from Denmark and was joined
into Sweden by a personal union. Christiania became the national capital and
started to grow. The Royal Palace was built, and the Storting (Parliament)
and government offices were established. By 1910, the population had already
reached 225,000.
Today Oslo is a well-planned city with wide, straight streets. Government
offices and the central business district are focused on Karl Johansgate,
which is the main street in Oslo. By the harbour is the two-towered City
Hall (completed 1950), the city's most famous landmark, facing the fjord and
the downtown area.
Oslo is also the cultural heart of Norway. The university, which was founded
in 1811, is the largest in the country. The city also contains the National
Theater, the Bygd�y folk museum with a large collection of traditional
buildings, and a museum of excavated Viking ships. On Holmenkollen, a
mountain overlooking the city, is a famous ski jump, the site of many winter
sports competitions. Frogner Park contains the statuary of Gustav Vigeland.
<From: Ken Ewing>
I spent a week in Oslo in July, 1989. I don't know what you might be
interested in, but here's a rundown of stuff that I did (please forgive any
misspellings...I don't have my travel info in front of me. :-)
* City Hall. Called "R�dhuset" in Norwegian. This is a large,
twin-towered building right on the waterfront. The ground floor is the
national tourist office. Here you can arrange for tours, find out
interesting things to see, buy guidebooks, etc.
* Akershus Fortress. Easy to find. It's a genuine medieval fort right on
the waterfront. It's something of a symbol for Oslo in that having been
under siege nine times since its construction in the 1300's, it has
never fallen to an enemy. Guided tours are available. In or near the
Akershus Fortress are many museums, including:
o Resistance Museum. A "must-see" for WWII enthusiasts. It looks
very small from outside the door, but it's quite large inside. It
documents the German occupation and TONS of artifacts, photos,
etc.
o Christiania Exhibit (I think it's called that). This is a model
and show about the history of Oslo. Oslo was originally located a
but further south, and the current site of Oslo used to be called
Christiania, named after King Christian IV.
* Take a water taxi across the bay to Bygd�y. There are several museums
over there, including:
o Maritime Museum. Pretty big place. If you're into maritime topics
(which I am) you can spend a few hours here.
o Fram Museum. The Fram is a sailing ship built around 1897. It was
basically designed to be a wooden-hulled icebreaker. The designer
had a theory that the Arctic ice cap flowed with "currents"
matching those of the ocean underneath, and that if a ship could
lodge itself in the ice, it could ride these currents across the
North Pole. He built this ship, lodged it into the ice, and proved
his theory (coming with five degrees of the North Pole). The ship
is now housed within this museum.
o Kon-Tiki museum. Contains Thor Heyerdahl's ships Kon-Tiki and Ra
II. You might remember Ra II from the movie made in 1973 (I
think). There is also a life-size copy of a statue from Easter
Island, and also a genuine, taxidermed, 30-foot whale shark
suspended underneath the Kon Tiki.
All three of these museums are right next to one another. A little
farther down the road (easy walking distance) you'll find:
o Viking Ship Museum. This building looks like a church from the
outside, and is not marked very well with signs. It contains three
actual Viking ships dug up from the ground, plus a bunch of
artifacts from the Viking era.
o Folk Museum. This is a large park that contains exhibits of the
inland culture of Norway (as opposed to the maritime culture, as
the other museums in this area display). The creators of this park
went all over Norway and collect farm houses (whole houses!),
stave churches (pronounced "stahv" -- some of these structures
date back to the 1200s and are still in active use), etc. to show
how Norwegian people lived. There are tours available. Employees
wear authentic cultural dress.
Back in Oslo:
* Vigeland Statue Park. This is a 20-acre or so park with 250 statues by
Mr. Vigeland, a famous Norwegian sculptor. It's best to get a guidebook
of some kind, as the park has a theme to its organization. As I
understand it, Vigeland statues are not found outside of Norway.
* Historical churches. Olso has been around for a long time, and there
are interesting old churches all over town.
* The Royal Palace. Norway has a royal family, although the parliament is
the governing body. The palace has a military guard that changes
regularly.
* Downtown shopping. The downtown area of Oslo is really quite small and
easily explored by walking. The main street, Karl Johansgate, starts
right in front of the Royal Palace and proceeds straight into the
downtown area. About halfway or so the street becomes closed to
traffic, and thus turns into a large walking mall. The street life is
fascinating, with the usual contingent of street musicians and other
entertainers. In the harbour is the new shopping complex, Akersbryggen;
gleaming modern architecture, restaurants, etc.
Other general tips:
* In Norway (as well as other Scandinavian countries) you can obtain a
"Tourist Card". You can get them for one, two, or three days, and you
buy them at the city hall (R�dhuset). This card gives you:
o Free transport on busses, trams, and subways.
o Discount admission to most museums.
o Discounts at some restaurants.
Among other advantages. I considered it worth the expense. With the
three-day card, you can get discounts on railroad fare to other places
in Norway, but you have to purchase tickets *before coming to Norway*
(which apparently means that you can obtain a tourist card through a
travel agency or perhaps through a Norwegian consulate).
* Restaurants seem to be rather rare around Oslo. I like eating out, and
I had a rather hard time finding restaurants around town.
* Alcohol is strictly controlled. Beer costs $6-$7 for a pint glass.
Drunk driving laws are strictly enforced with heavy penalties, and
foreigners cannot claim ignorance as an excuse.
* Oslo seems to be a safe place. I never felt in danger of physical harm
at any time. Virtually everyone there (natives, that is) speaks English
(it is a requirement in the school system).
6.4.3 Trondheim
Trondheim, a city on the west central coast of Norway, is situated about 400
km north of Oslo. The city is the site of the Technical University of Norway
(1900) and the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences (1760). Histoical
landmarks include the impressive Nidaros Cathedral (started in 1075,
finished c. 1320, burned badly six times, restauration started in 1869),
where several Norse kings and Kings of independent Norway have been crowned.
The cathedral, built from Norwegian blue soapstone and white marble,
contains the tomb of St. King Olaf II (Saint Olaf), which made it an
important centre of pilgrimage in the middle ages.
Founded as Kaupangr by King Olav Tryggvason in 997, Trondheim was an
archbishopric from 1152 until the Reformation (1537). The city was an
important administrative and commercial center during the 12th and 13th
centuries, but its importance later diminished.
Erkebispeg�rden, the archbishop's house by the cathedral survives from the
middle ages. Stiftsg�rden is a long wooden building with a rococo interior.
Folkemuseum has a collection of traditional houses and a stave church. The
fortified island of Munkholmen just off the city can be reached by a boat.
6.4.4 Hurtigruta
Anne Lise Falck <[email protected]> wrote:
I have one particular thing in mind: you should take the time to travel with
`Hurtigruta` or Coastal Line as they say in English. It is a beautiful
boatride from Bergen to Kirkenes by the Russian border in the north. You
have the possibility of stopping in different cities along the coast if you
want to, and I believe that the whole trip takes about a week or two.
Mike Jittlov adds:
IMHO, it's the finest boat cruise in the world. You might consider a variety
of travel (it seems to invite adventure and wonderful meetings): take the
train from Oslo toward Bergen, but just before that switch trains at Myrdal,
winding down the steep gorge to Fl�m, and take the ferry through the
spectacular fjord (either to Bergen, or a bus to the city); treat yourself
to a day or two in Bergen (wonderful fish & rolls at the harborside market),
then board the Hurtigruten northbound; the route through the Lofoten Islands
is breathtaking, and incredibly healing for spirit and body (weather
permitting, the steamer takes a sidetrip into the Trollfjord, and plays
Grieg's "Hall of the Mountain King" over loudspeakers); continue to Troms�,
then to Nordkapp (incredibly touristy at the northernmost point of Europe -
but the contrast can be wild), every village and stop along the way enticing
you to stop and explore and learn and enjoy; take the plane to Trondheim,
and then the train back to Oslo (with a sidetrip to Hell, a beautiful
fjord-town with a unique stamp for your passport ;) -- check out postcards
and the free tourist brochures for places that excite your interest. Ask for
directions and advice -- everyone is helpful, gracious, and honest; most
speak English, and will help you with your Norwegian.
The Hurtigruta has also a home page on WWW (both in English and Norwegian):
<http://elvis.fiskforsk.norut.no/hr/>.
------------------------------
Subject: 6.5 Norwegian literature
The earliest Norwegian literature, the Poetic Edda, was composed in Norway
but written down on Iceland in the early middle ages by the descendendants
of Norwegian settlers of Iceland. A more ornate and technically complicated
poetry was composed by court poets, or skalds, mainly in praise of the
battle exploits of various chieftains.
From the 16th through the 18th century, Norwegian literature was written in
Danish, mostly by priests and civil servants educated in Denmark. The two
principal literary figures were Petter Dass in the 17th century and Ludvig,
Baron Holberg in the 18th. Dass has given a marvelously vivid picture of
life in the north of Norway in his topographical poem, The Trumpet of
Nordland (1739; Eng. trans., 1954); Holberg was the first professional
author in Dano-Norwegian literature. A highly learned person, he wrote in a
variety of genres; his comedies in particular have remained popular.
Norways newly won independence from Denmark in 1814 inspired authors to
regard themselves as the creators of a national literature and national
identity. Henrik Arnold Wergeland, considered by some the Norwegian national
poet, enthralled his countrymen with e.g his monumental cosmological poem,
Skabelsen, mennesket, og messias (Creation, Man, and Messiah, 1830). The
conservative poet and critic Johan Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven, however,
reproached Wergeland for his refusal to recognize the existence of a shared
Dano-Norwegian cultural heritage. But he little effect on either Wergeland
or other contemporaries, such as Peter Christen Asb�rnsen and J�rgen
Engebretsen M�e, who were enthusiastically rediscovering Norway's great
past. Asbj�rnsen and M�e published their celebrated Norske folkeeventyr
(Norwegian Folk Tales) in 1842-44. Bj�rnstjerne Bj�rnson, a great Norwegian
patriot, also used folklore in his novels describing peasant life.
The dramatist Henrik Ibsen is Norway's most famous literary figure; some of
his plays are considered to rank with the works of Shakespeare. In the 20th
century, three Norwegian novelists have won Nobel Prizes: Bj�rnstjerne
Bj�rnson in 1903, Knut Hamsun, most famous for Growth of the Soil (1917;
English translation 1920), and Sigrid Undset, author of the epic novel
Kristin Lavransd�tter (1920-22; English translation 1923-27). Other
important writers of this century include the novelist John B�jer, the poet
Olaf Bull, novelist Olav Duun, playwright and novelist Nordahl Grieg, and
novelist Terje Vesaas. More recent authors of note are short-story writer
Terje Stigen, novelist Jens Bj�rnboe, poet Stein Mehren, the feminist writer
Bj�rg Vik, and Jostein Gaarder, a former school teacher whose novel on the
history of western philosophy (Sophie's World, 1991) has had tremendous
success all over the world.
For electronic versions of some of the works of Nordic literature, see the
collection of Project Runeberg:
* <http://www.lysator.liu.se/runeberg/>
* <ftp://ftp.lysator.liu.se/pub/runeberg>
* gopher.lysator.liu.se ; path: /project-runeberg
------------------------------
Subject: 6.6 Sons of Norway
<From: Ruth M. Sylte>
(Ruth, if you'd like to write a more comprehensive intro I won't say no. :)
In recent years, Sons of Norway has been actively reaching out to the
"younger" community of Norwegian-Americans. The Viking magazine has many
interesting articles that cover subjects on modern Norway. There are also
specific pages for children each month that look at various cultural and
historical subjects.
Sons of Norway also has special membership categories for children and young
people. Children (up to age 15) who are the children *and/or* grandchildren
of Sons of Norway adult members can be FREE "Heritage" Members in Sons of
Norway. This entitles them to a number of benefits, including a quarterly
newsletter geared specifically for that age group. The newsletter often
carries penpal requests from American and Norwegian children. Young people -
(about ages 15-22) can join SoN at a reduced membership rate and receive a
newsletter geared toward their age group.
SoN also sponsors summer camps where children can go to get an introduction
to Norwegian language and culture. They also offer scholarships to study at
"Camp Norway" - a 6 week summer language camp in Sandane, Norway - and the
University of Oslo's International Summer School.
There are a number of active SoN lodges in the San Francisco area. Indeed,
anyone looking for Sons of Norway can usually find them organizing the local
Syttende Mai events. :-)
Sons of Norway has a Heritage Books department (run out of a store called
"Tomten") that offers books in Norwegian and English that deal with the
subjects listed above (and many others). They can be reached at:
Heritage Books
7616 Lyndale Avenue South
Minneapolis, MN 55423
tlf: 1-800-468-2424 or 1-612-866-3636
fax: 1-612-866-3580
Ruth - Vice-President of Midnattsolen Lodge #6-156 in Orange County ;-)
------------------------------
Subject: 6.7 Dictionaries and study-material
In the World Wide Web, the Norwegian dictionaries have been removed. :-(
Nynorskorboka (Det Norske Samlaget) and Bokm�lsordboka
(Universitetsforlaget) form the official standard of the the two forms of
written Norwegian, "nynorsk" and "bokm�l". In addition, the following
dictionaries can be mentioned:
* W. A. Kirkeby. Norsk-engelsk ordbok (Kunnskapsforlaget). Especially
good for Norwegian-speakers looking for the idiomatic way to say
something in English.
* Aschehoug og Gyldendals Store norske orbok ("moderat bokm�l og
riksm�l")
* W. A. Kirkeby. Engelsk-norsk ordbok
* Einar Haugen. Norsk-engelsk ordbok. Universitetsforlaget. OR the
American edition, Norwegian-English Dictionary (not sure of publisher).
Especially useful to English-speakers learning Norwegian; includes both
Bokm}l and Nynorsk words.
* The latest, most up-to-date version of Guttu's dictionary is Norsk
illustrert ordbok. Moderat bokm�l og riksm�l (Oslo 1993, 1009 pages).
The format is now almost exactly like that of Bokm�lsordboka (17cm x
25.5cm). Both are excellent dictionaries, which can be recommended.
However, Norsk illustrert ordbok has a layout that makes it easier to
find what you are looking for in big articles.
Dave Golber writes:
(1) Get Einar Haugen's Norwegian-English dictionary. It's great. (Also, it's
got a introductory section that describes Nyn-Bokm.) It's written in English
in the sense that the explanations, extended descriptions, etc, are in
English, not Norwegian.
For English-Norwegian, I don't have any strong opinion. I have and use
Kirkeby's Dictionary, and it's good.
The Haugen you should be able to order from your local bookstore. The
Kirkeby might be harder. I can get you the particulars (publisher, ISBN
number, etc). You might have to order it from Norway, but that isn't as hard
as you think. Perhaps someone else in the group here will have suggestions.
(2) I started using the tapes "Norsk for Utlendingar" (Norwegian for
Foreigners). This is used in Norway for teaching Norwegian to immigrants. I
think it's great. I wish I'd started using it long ago. It's available in
the USA from Audio Forum, with the Norwegian texts that go with it, plus an
American supplement. For an outrageous price. But it's worth it.
-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- END OF PART 6 -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
� Copyright 1994-96 by Antti Lahelma and Johan Olofsson.
You are free to quote this page as long as you mention the URL for the
original archive (as: <http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/index.html>), where
the most recent version of this document can be found.
|
| 245.7 | Sweden | TLE::SAVAGE | | Mon Sep 09 1996 12:54 | 2522 |
|
-
A Frequently Answered Questions (FAQ) file for the newsgroup
S O C . C U L T U R E . N O R D I C
*** PART 7: SWEDEN ***
Index
7.1 Fact Sheet
7.2 General information
7.2.1 Geography, climate, vegetation
7.2.2 Economy
7.2.3 Government
7.2.4 Population
7.2.5 the Swedish language
7.2.6 Culture
7.2.7 Democratic traditions
7.3 History
7.3.1 A chronology of important dates
7.3.2 A list of Swedish monarchs
7.3.3 the medieval time
7.3.4 the consolidation of the state
7.3.5 toward democracy
7.3.6 ! War all around Sweden
7.3.7 social security
7.4 Main tourist attractions
7.4.1 Stockholm
7.4.2 Uppsala
7.4.3 Malm�
7.4.4 G�teborg
7.4.5 Gotland
7.4.6 The rest of Sweden
7.5 Swedish literature
7.6 Scania
7.6.1 Sk�ne and Sk�neland
7.6.2 Miscellaneous facts
7.6.3 A few marks in history
7.6.4 International status
7.6.5 The flag
7.6.6 Culture
7.6.7 Language
7.6.8 Membership in the European Union
7.6.9 Cooperation with Sj�lland and the bridge over
�resund
7.6.10 A politically united region
7.7 Books for learning Swedish
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: 7.1 Fact Sheet
Name: Konungariket Sverige
Telephone area code: 46
Area: 449.964 km� / 173.629 sq mi.
Land boundaries: Norway, Finland
Terrain: mostly flat or gently rolling lowlands;
blunt mountains in north and west;
large archipelagos on the eastern coast.
Highest mountain: Kebnekaise, 2,111 m (6,926 ft)
Natural resources: iron ore, zinc, lead, copper, silver, timber,
uranium, hydropower
Population: 8.835.000 (1996)
Population density: 19 persons / km�.
Distribution: 83% urban, 17% rural. (1990)
Life expectancy: males: 76, females: 81 (1995)
Capital: Stockholm (pop. 693,000;
Stockholms l�n 1,686,000 [ the metropolitan area ])
Other major towns: G�teborg (Gothenburg 450,000),
Malm� (240,000),
Uppsala (160,000),
Link�ping (120,000),
Norrk�ping (120,000)
Flag: a yellow Nordic cross on blue background.
Type: constitutional monarchy
Head of state: King Carl XVI Gustaf
Languages: Swedish.
(Finnish, Romani and Sami languages
are acknoledged minority languages.)
Currency: krona (Swedish crown, SEK). For the current exchange
rate, see URL http://www.dna.lth.se/cgi-bin/kurt/rates
Climate: temperate in south with cold winters; sub-arctic in north.
Temp. in Stockholm: -5�C - +1�C in Feb.,
+14�C - +22�C in July.
Religion: Evangelic-Lutheran (91%) (official state-religion),
Lutheran free churches (3%),
Islam (2%),
Roman Catholic (1.5%),
Orthodox (0.7%)
Exports: machinery, motor vehicles, paper products, pulp and wood,
iron and steel products, chemicals, electronics
------------------------------
Subject: 7.2 General information
[ By: Ahrvid Engholm and Antti Lahelma ]
7.2.1 Geography, climate, vegetation
Sweden occupies the Eastern part of the Scandinavian peninsula. It's a long
(1572 kilometers) and rather narrow country, and the largest of the Nordic
countries. It shares a long border with Norway to the west and a shorter
border with Finland in the east; Denmark lies to the south across the Danish
straits, over one of which (�resund) a huge bridge is being built. The
Baltic Sea islands of Gotland and �land are integral parts of Sweden.
Northwestern Sweden is crossed by an ancient mountain chain; the remainder
of the north is a southeast-sloping plateau that rises to between 200 and
500 meters. South of the Norrland, forming the region of Svealand in central
Sweden and G�taland farther south, is a varied region of plains and rift
valleys. (The region G�taland should strictly speeking not be used for more
than the provinces Dalsland, V�sterg�tland and �sterg�tland, but most often
also Bohusl�n, Halland, Sm�land, Sk�ne and Bleking are understood as
provinces of G�taland, as they are incorporated in the Swedish realm after
being captured in the 17th century.) To the north of the highlands is the
Central Swedish Depression, a down-faulted, lake-strewn lowland extending
across the peninsula from near G�teborg to east of Stockholm and Uppsala. To
the south is Sk�ne, a low-lying, predominantly agricultural area.
Because of it's large area and latitudinal extent, Sweden has a number of
climate regimes. A cold, maritime climate dominates the country's west
coast. The northern two-thirds of the country has a continental climate
marked by severe winters. The south central areas experience the long,
rather cold winters of the north, but they enjoy milder summers. The
mountain regions remain cool in summer. In January temperatures average
-0.8�C at Lund in the south), -2.8�C at Stockholm, and -13.7�C at Jokkmokk
north of the the Arctic Circle. In July, the temperature variation is lower
because of the sun shines the longer the further north one goes: 15�C at
Jokkmokk, 18�C at Stockholm, and only 17�C at Lund. Snow remains on the
ground for 40 days in southernmost Sweden, 100 days in the Stockholm area,
and 250 days in the northwest mountains.
Forest covers ca. 64% of the land area. It consists of a summer-green forest
of beeches, oaks, and other deciduous trees in the south, a mixed forest of
deciduous and coniferous trees in central Sweden, and a predominantly
coniferous forest of mainly pines and spruce in the north. Mountain birch
and dwarf birch grow in colder upland areas, and tundra covers the highest
elevations. Treeless moors (peat moss and marshland) cover more than 14% of
all Sweden and as much as 40% in western areas of the south and parts of
Norrland. Bears, wolves and lynxes are now found only in isolated woodlands,
elk and deer are the common large animals found elsewhere.
7.2.2 Economy
Sweden's most valuable assets are forests, mines (especially iron, but
copper has also been important), and in modern days hydroelectric power. The
metallurgic industry was started in the 16th and 17th centuries, and through
the ages Sweden has been known as one of the biggest iron exporters in the
world. A mechanical industry came with the industrial revolution in the 19th
Century, and Swedish products such as steel (Sandvik), paper (SCA and
others), cars (Volvo and Saab), ball bearings (SKF), electrical equipment
(ASEA, now ABB), telephone equipment (Ericsson) have become well known.
7.2.3 Government
Sweden is a constitutional Monarchy, but the monarch only acts as a
ceremonial head of state. A parliament (Riksdag) composed of 349 members is
elected every four years; it elects the prime minister, passes laws, decides
on taxes and approves the state budget. The cabinet holds office only as
long as it retains the support of a majority in the Riksdag. The state
authorities are comparably independent of the cabinet: their highest
officials being appointed by the cabinet for six years, and usually the term
is extended unless serious problems occurred in the contact between the
authority and the ministry. There are four laws protected as constitutions:
Instrument of Government, Parliament Act, Succession Act, and the Freedom of
the Press Act.
The 286 municipalities are obliged to fulfill services to its inhabitants as
stipulated by law, but are independent to decide the means without
interference from state authorities. Municipalities are mainly responsible
for education and social service. Additionally there are likewisely
independent province councils responsible mainly for hospitals, medical
practioners and other health care.
The democratic councils for municipalities and provinces are elected by the
residents, regardless of citizenship, which in the most extreme cases means
that nearly 20% of them eligible to vote are aliens.
After the era of the Kalmar Union between Denmark and Sweden, king Gustaf
Vasa created a more modern nation and made Sweden Lutheran. After the losses
of territories 1718 and 1809 democratic reforms where made, but it lasted to
1921 until all adult citizens had the right to vote (for men: 1907), and
first 1971 the constitution was changed to reflect the long-time practice of
parliamentarism.
During the 1990:ies the state church is in the process of liberating itself
from the state, or maybe more accurate: the state is giving up its power
over the church, and the church will lose some of the authority connected to
its status as state church. A decreased number of members is to expect.
Sweden has not been involved in a war since 1814, mainly due to luck and a
strong policy of neutrality. This policy may shift as Sweden in January 1995
joined the European Union (but the future isn't very clear yet).
There are old proto-democratic traditions in Sweden. In the middle ages the
kings were elected for life by representatives of the different "landskaps".
Even when the monarchy was made hereditary after the Kalmar Union, the
elected estates at the Riksdag retained substantial power (though the king
sometimes managed to push this power back). These traditions played an
important role as modern democracy gradually took over in the 19th and early
20th centuries.
Two important political concepts emerge from Sweden: the ombudsman, a
representative elected by the parliament to watch public administrations and
with the power to prosecute, and the constitutional principle of official
documents ("offentlighetsprincipen" constituting a part of the Freedom of
the Press Act), which says that all governmental documents are a priori
public (unless declared secret under special laws).
Political forces
The principal political parties are
* the Social Democratic party (led by the prime minister G�ran Persson),
* the "Moderata Samlingspartiet" (the rightest party with liberal policy
but a conservative heritage; led by former prime minister Carl Bildt),
* the Center party (with agrarian dominance and subsequently
diminishing),
* the (social) Liberal party "Folkpartiet",
* the Christian Democratic party,
* the Environmentalists The Green,
* the Left (formerly the Communist) party, and
* the populist "Ny Demokrati" (New Democracy - now committing suicide).
Beginning in the 1930s, the Social Democrats were the dominant party, their
position secured by economic prosperity and a broad program of social
welfare. In the 1970s and 1980s, however, dissatisfaction grew among the
voters over high taxes and a lagging economy. An anti-socialist coalition
governed from 1976 to 1982, and another one under Carl Bildt from 1991 to
1994, when Social Democrats under Carlsson again came to power. When in
trouble, as for the moment, the social democrats have a tradition to lean
against the Center party, with regular negotiations and agreements, but
without forming coalition cabinets.
In the last elections the results has been as follows:
1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994
-----------------------------------------------------
Left 5,3 4,8 5,6 5,6 5,4 5,8 4,5 6,2
Green (1,7) (1,5) 5,5 (3,4) 5,0
Soc.dem. 43,6 42,7 43,2 45,6 44,7 43,2 37,7 45,3
soc.lib. 9,4 11,1 10,6 5,9 14,2 12,2 9,1 7,2
center 25,1 24,1 18,1 15,5 12,4 11,3 8,5 7,7
christ. (1,9) (2,9) 7,1 4,1
Right 14,3 15,6 20,3 23,6 21,3 18,3 21,9 22,4
popul. 6,7 (1,2)
-----------------------------------------------------
Blocks:
left 48,9 47,5 48,8 51,2 50,1 54,5 42,2 56,5
right 48,8 50,8 49,0 45,0 47,9 41,8 53,1 41,4
In parentheses: results below the 4,0% limit for representation.
Maybe due to the dominant position of the Social Democrats the politic life
in Sweden has been characterized by semi-rigid right and left blocks defined
as oppositional or supporters of the Social Democrats. During some periods
the Social Democrats have succeeded to cooperate with one of the right block
parties, as during 1996 with the Center Party, which the other parties have
seen as weakening of the opposition.
Account over municipal responsibilities
Approximately 50% of the municipal services are financed through direct
taxes, only 15% by direct fees, and about 20% as state contributions. (Don't
ask about the remaining 15% - the municipal trolls might change their
minds.) Totally 350 milliards SEK are used for municipal activities, and 170
milliards SEK for the province councils, of which nearly all goes to the
health care sector.
The main municipal expenditures are:
* Primary and secondary education (21%),
* caring for elderly (17%),
* caring for children (11%),
* support of disabled and poor (8%),
* supply of ground and housing (10%),
* supply of water, energy and garbage disposal (7%),
* public transportations (4%), and
* sport and leisure (4%).
[ Figures above for year 1993 ]
Account over state revenue
Approximately 550 milliards SEK are distributed by the state budget, of
which 75 milliards go straight to the municipalities and provinces as
subsidizes.
The rest is distributed on:
(memorizeable figures, in the range +/- 10% of exact figures)
* 100 mill. National debt interest
* 75 mill. pensions to aged and disabled
* 75 mill. state consumption (defence, police, universities etc)
* 75 mill. transfers to families, unemployed, diseased and others
* 45 mill. transfers to private corporations
* 30 mill. transfers to state enterprises
* 15 mill. foreign aid
[ Figures above for the fiscal year 1993/94 ]
7.2.4 Population
The nation has its roots in the different kingdoms of the Viking Age, and is
said to have been created when the King of the Svenonians ("Svearna")
assumed kingship over Goths ("G�tarna") as well in early middle ages. The
word Sweden ("Sverige" short for "Svea rike" in Swedish) comes from the
Svenonians ("Svearna"); "Sverige" means the realm of the Svenonians. The
English form of the name is probably derived from an old Germanic form,
Svetheod, meaning the Swedish people. In medieval times the Swedes also
pushed north to colonize the province now known as Norrland, and over the
Baltic Sea to conquer Finland.
Sweden has a relatively homogeneous population in ethnic stock, language,
and religion.
Because of the country's isolation only few non-Swedes have intermixed with
the Swedes before very recent times; the major groups that have done so were
Finns 1580-1660 and Walloons from present-day Belgium, who settled in the
Bergslagen area in the 1620s.
Groups that maintain their distinct ethnic identity today include a Finnish
minority on the border to Finland, about 15,000 Saami, and recent
immigrants.
Since 1987 the Tornedalen-Finnish, Saami languages and Romani have special
status as minority languages, and since 1993 the Saami minority elects a
representative assembly, the Saami Parliament, which however has limited
power. Constitutionally this assembly, despite its name, is less more than a
lobby organization with authority to distribute the funds the Swedish
government let it dispose.
In the furtest north geographical names make the Lappish heritage obvious.
The following words in Saami languages are usual:
tjuolma= land between rivers,
luokta = bay,
jaure = sea,
jokk = small river,
kaise = steep peak,
tj�kk� = blunt peak,
vare = fjeld mountain,
tuottar= fjeld plain (without trees).
12% of the population are 1:st generation immigrants:
from the Baltic countries (1944); Hungary (1956); Yugoslavia, Greece, and
Turkey (in the 1960s and '70s), Czechoslovakia (1968), Chile (1973), Iran
and Iraq (in the 1980s), Palestina/Lebanon, and recently arrived refugees
from the civil wars in Yugoslavia. A third of the immigrants (4,4%) has
arrived from the neighboring countries Finland, Norway, Denmark, Germany and
Poland.
Today about half of the immigrants have Swedish citizenship.
7.2.5 The Swedish language
Swedish is a Germanic language, very closely related to Danish and Norwegian
(most Swedes can understand Danish and Norwegian), and somewhat less close
to Icelandic, German, Dutch and English. There are many words borrowed from
German, French (18th Century) and English (later). Except for in Sweden,
Swedish is spoken by a native minority in Finland, and a nowadays very small
minority at the Estonian coast and islands.
Peculiar with the Swedish language is that there exist not only one, but at
least four hight status dialects (and sociolects): One southern, connected
with Scania and the University in Lund, one western spoken by affluent
people in and around Gothenburg/G�teborg, one eastern valid in Finland (for
instance on stage in Helsinki/Helsingfors), and finally the sociolect spoken
by higher officials, actors and others in the capital, which serves as high
status standard for the rest of Sweden, connected with the University in
Uppsala. Besides there exist at least a dozen of still distinguishable
dialects, or dialect groups, but after the breakthrough for radio and TV
these dialects have been heavily influented by the equalizing effect of the
broadcasting media. (A recent unsolved dispute in the newsgroup was whether
the Scanian dialects rightfully is to classify as East-Danish together with
the dialect on Bornholm, or with the dialects of G�taland i.e. in G�teborg,
Sm�land and �sterg�tland.)
For non-Nordics who attempt to learn the Swedish language, the pronunciation
might seem rather difficult, since Swedish (at least the "standard" variety
of it spoken in Sweden) has several unusual vowels and consonants, e.g.
retroflexed dentals and the "sj"-sound in sjuk "sick" which are not found in
other European languages. Distinct word tones also characterize certain
elements of its vocabulary, for which reason acquisition of a good Swedish
pronunciation requires a considerable amount of commitment and work. The
serious student of Swedish also has to learn to deal with regional varieties
such as Scanian and Finland-Swedish, both of which differ sharply in
pronunciation from the Stockholm-area oriented standard "broadcast" Swedish.
Erland Sommarskog <[email protected]> replies:
To be fair, dialects of Swedish are not worse than say of Italian.
- Or for that matter, English.
You don't need to bother about the "sj" in "sjuk". While as noted above,
this is a strange creature, it is also subject to huge variation, and if you
get in conversation with some Swedes you might find that every one is
pronouncing the sound differently - even that the same person is chosing
different realiasations on different occassions. Phonemically you would
write them all /S/, you can use the sound for "sh" in "shoe" without being
particularly wrong. You will then have to learn to distinguish this alevoar
fricative from the palatal fricative in "tjuv" - then again, there are
Swedes who don't.
From my experience the retroflexes does not cause much problems either. Odd
as they are, foreigners seem to pick them up quite easily. And, again, it is
possible to avoid them. They arise when 'r' is followed by 's', 'n', 'd',
't' and 'l', but several dialects pronounce them separately. And while in
Sweden this is dialects have an uvular or velar 'r', I know people who speak
with a front 'r' and yet do not use retroflexes without having any
Finland-Swedish ancestry at all. How this has come about I don't know, but
I'm suspecting these individuals to have abandoned their original dialect
for an over-correct standard Swedish.
There are nevertheless some difficult sound in Swedish. 'u' as in "kul" is a
rounded semi-high front vowel which has few equals. To a foreigner it might
seem close to 'y' which is a rounded high front vowel, but I can assure you
to a Swede they are most definitely not.
Then again, I once spoke with a British gentleman who said "Sturegatan". His
'u' was perfect, but the first 'a' in "gatan" revealed him directly. To wit,
the 'a' is the same as in "father" but with slightly different colour.
Anyway, Swedish pronouciation is probably difficult because it is so
irregular. Not so bad as English, but bad enough. One thing we are
particularly fond of are homographs, that is words with the same spelling
but different pronounciation: "v�n", "kort", "hov", "vits", "h�nger".
7.2.6 Culture
Swedes work hard, pay high taxes, try to be open minded to other cultures
(there is much immigration, which most people seem to accept), enjoy their
traditions (around Christmas and Midsummer, for instance), but it is not
true we should be among the heaviest drinkers in the world. Statistics in
the newspaper Svenska Dagbladet January 7th 1995 shows Swedish alcohol
consumption to be on only 21st place among a selection of the industrialized
nations, with 6.1 (100% pure) liters of alcohol/year (after most Western
European countries and USA). On the other hand we do (most of us do) still
follow our old custom to drink only occasionally, but then with the goal to
get drunk. [ For further information, see the article in part 2 about Nordic
alcohol customs. ]
Swedes take pride in making the society friendly to children and their
parents including long government-paid maternal leaves, subsidized
pre-schools and municipal investments for sport and leisure-time activities.
Swedish women have one of the highest fertility rates in the industrialized
world, giving birth to 1.97 child each, and the highest rate of breast
feeding.
In the same intention to make the society friendly and to lighten the lives
of its members, Sweden has also put certain effort into making public
buildings, and also ordinary tenement houses, available for wheel chairs.
The nature, the big woods and the mountains, have a particular place in the
hearts of the Swedes. The General Right to Public Access ("Allemansr�tten")
is unique for the Scandinavian countries, and the most important base for
outdoor recreation, providing the possibility for each and everyone to visit
non-cultivated land, to take a bath in seas, and to pick the wild flowers,
berries and mushrooms.
The religious rites as baptizing, confirmation, marriage and funeral are
deeply rooted in the culture, although only a small minority participate in
ordinary mass. Despite the fact that the Swedes have honored the old
Germanic tradition that the people follow the religion of the king, and
subsequently all Swedes were obliged to communion long into the 19:th
century and to membership in the state church long into the 20:th century,
it can also be noted that Swedes belong to the most secularized people in
the world.
The church, and its services, are felt more as a cultural heritage, than as
a religious. As for instance at 1:st Sunday in Advent and at Christmas Eve -
the two days at the year when the churches are filled.
Science and technology also play an important role in the modern Swedish
society. Private companies fund substantial research and development, and
also the government funds research at the universities. Examples are the JAS
Gripen fighter project, and the information technology strategies put forth
by the Bildt (1991-1994) government. (The following cabinets, led by Ingvar
Carlsson and G�ran Persson have been less enthusiastic about these
projects.)
Leading cultural institutions (in Stockholm) are the Swedish Royal Opera;
the Royal Dramatic Theater; the National Touring Theater; and the Swedish
Academy, which awards the Nobel Prize for Literature.
Literature is important in Swedish culture. Authors like August Strindberg
(1849-1912), Selma Lagerl�f (1858-1940) who wrote G�sta Berlings Saga
(awarded with the Nobel Prize) and Astrid Lindgren (1907-) are among the
best known. At the previous century shift public libraries were organized by
different organizations in nearby every village with a church or a school.
Most of them still remain, but now run by the municipalities. A curious
detail is that most Swedes probably would not count authors as Edith
S�dergran and Tove Jansson as Swedish authors, despite the fact that they
have written in Swedish - their mother tongue.
There aren't many internationally known Swedish composers, but Swedes have
an ancient fondness for ballads and troubadours (Carl Michael Bellman
(1740-1795) is dearly loved by Swedes), and in the later days Swedish pop
and rock groups have reached international fame (e.g ABBA, Army of Lovers,
Roxette, Ace of Base, etc).
Of the many immigrants very few have yet become popular cultural
personalities. Maybe with exception of the poet Theodor Kalifatides and
Finland-Swedish actors, as Stina Ekblad, J�rn Donner, Birgitta Ulfsson and
Lasse P�isti. Promising is however how a lot of new Swedish rock bands come
from suburbs with immigrant majorities, and how some of the most popular
rock and pop artists are immigrants, as for instance dr. Alban.
Sweden also has a strong movie tradition, already from the days of the
silent movies, people such as Victor Sj�str�m (1879-1960), known in the
United States as Victor Seastrom, and Mauritz Stiller (1883-1928). The
director Ingmar Bergman (1918-) is world-famous and actors like Ingrid
Bergman (1915-1982) and Greta Garbo (1905-1990) have played in several of
the classics of the movie history.
Various sports are popular in Sweden, especially team sports like soccer and
ice hockey, but also for example tennis and table-tennis, outdoor activities
like skiing and orienteering.
7.2.7 local democratic traditions
If Swedes aren't proud of the violent past with vikings, wars and conquers
then instead the long and strong democratic tradition is a very important
part of the cultural heritage.
To trace this tradition is almost impossible, since already in the first
written laws (from the 1220:ies) it seems obvious that the customs are
timehonored. Villages had had time at least since the Iron age to develop
traditions. To distinguish Sweden's conditions compared to Finland, Denmark
or the European continent is also hard but a few differences are obvious.
While solitarily living families have been more important in parts of
Finland, villages and works are the most prominent communities in Sweden.
The Danish tradition is influenced by feudalism and the absence of woods and
works. Fishing villages have been of the greatest importance on the long
Norwegian coast and on the many Danish islands. These societal differences
are usable when one tries to analyze the differences between "national
characters" - still one must remember the resemblance is more prominent than
the differences.
Scandinavia and Finland has had only a rudimentary feudal system. Most land
has been owned by commoners paying taxes to the king and without being
directs subordinates to any lords. The great forests has made it hard for
the lords to pester and punish the commoners.
In Sweden the villages were left to rule themselves without any superior to
interfere. Each villages had, until the 19:th century, one fenced field
precisely marked in shares for each property. (On the rich plains some
villages had two or even three fenced fields where the crops were changed
systematically, but in these cases each farm had property on each field.)
Outside of the fence the cattle had to graze between sowing and harvest. The
farmers were responsible for one part each of the fence. The fence was the
most important subject the villagers had to cooperate about, but as the
field was organized it was also practically and often necessary to do the
work coordinated on the same days. The village meeting had to discuss and
decide about this, but also about the use of woods, fishing water, common
roads, boats and herding.
The village meeting was however not for crofters or other poor. Instead it
often regulated how many lodgers the village could feed, forcing people to
move.
The main rule was, that changes in the statues for a villages were to be
accepted by all farmers unanimous. The statues could however stipulate that
other decisions were to be made by a majority. Unanimity was however the
basic rule for how decisions were to be made at meetings in villages and
parishes.
This tradition of unanimous decisions must have contributed to the Swedish
custom of adjustment of ones attitudes to the perceived majority. Unanimous
decisions demand a high degree of compromises from the individuals.
The pre-Christian culture was a tribe culture like many other of the
pre-Christian cultures among the indo-Europeans. The members of a tribe were
obliged to avenge injuries against their dead and mutilated relatives. A
balancing structure is necessary to hinder tribe fights to lead to society
destructing anarchy. In the North-Germanic cultures the balancing
institution was the Thing ("ting"). The thing was the assembly of the free
men in an area, as in a hundred ("h�rad") or in a province / county
("landskap"), at which disputes were solved and political decisions were
made. Before Christianity chieftains where at the same time political and
religious leaders, with the main purpose to bring the people good times
("fred" - nowadays actually the word for peace). The place for the Thing
("tingsplats") was often also the place for public religious rites, and
sometimes the place for commerce.
In case of bad times the people could sacrifice their leader (literally!),
or maybe less violently select another leader. As the Christian missionaries
then convinced the most respected among the viking magnates, an abyss opened
between the ordinary agrarian people an their converted magnates; and the
old order was disrupted.
Free peasants who were used to participate in the decision making in the
village, in the province and in the realm did not easily accept to be left
unquestioned when the Svea kingdom expanded.
The Engelbrecht rebellion is probably the best picture we can get of how
kings had been elected in older times. Engelbrecht was elected to captain
for Dalarna where he and the people had promised each other allegiance, then
he went to V�stmanland, where the people summoned to the "tingsplats"
expressed their support and allegiance, then to Uppland where Engelbrecht
and the people promised each other allegiance, then to �sterg�tland, where
the procedure was repeated, and then to V�sterg�tland where he was honored
by the people, then to Halland (the part which at that time was identified
with G�taland and Sweden). All this occurred in the end of the summer 1434.
In January 1435 a diet appointed Engelbrecht as captain for the Swedish
realm, and as such he that year negotiated with the union-king - with poor
result. In response to demands from the country a new diet was summoned in
1436 where Engelbrecht was elected king. As king he requested the people in
Stockholm to swear allegiance. The Stockholmians had to choose between a
battle and a new king, and accepted the new king.
During the 16th century a lot of land was taken by the state from parishes
and convents. These lands were then often transferred to the nobility,
particularly from 1567 to 1680, which had important consequences for the
peasants. Tenant farmers on state property could be forced to do extra work
in addition to the law-regulated taxes, which was a less favorable situation
than for farmers owning their own land, but farmers on land sold/given to
nobel masters had additionally lost their right to participation in the
elections of peasant representatives at the diets.
Works (bruksorter) is the contrasting element, organized in much as a
manorial estate, where the owner had the duty to act as a good master in a
strictly hierarchical household. The works was a closed society, taking
responsibility for the people living there from the cradle to the grave.
United the people could express their wishes and propositions, and a wise
master would not act against the best of the people. But the power was his.
The rules of order at democratic meetings got changed in the 19:th century.
The villages were split, many farmers' houses were moved away from the
village, each farm got it's field separated from the others, and the village
meeting became obsolete. The traditions from the higher assemblies, where
the majority ruled, were found fit for the parishes also, particularly when
these came to grow due to the urbanization. With the Free Churches, the
Temperance movement and the workers unions foreign influences were added to
the old traditions.
Today fairness and equality are important parts of the order at a meeting.
The word is given to speakers in the order they have asked for it, no-one is
to be unfairly favored. The assembly and the chair are not supposed to
interrupt the speaker, unless he/she breaks any decided rules (as a time
limit) or humiliates others. All who wish to speak are entitled to do so
prior to the voting, all are entitled to put propositions forward, all
propositions are to be equally handled (almost!), and in case of the
majority taking a position one feel impossible to take responsibility for,
then all are entitled to get ones dissentient opinions taken to the records.
But still traces of the unanimity tradition is visible in the attitude that
people who suspect they belong to a minority should better not utter their
opinion - to the best of all - in order to reinforce the feeling of unity
and unanimity. ...and after a decision all participants are expected to
advocate the opinion of the majority - whatever they thought before.
------------------------------
Subject: 7.3 History
A brief chronicle is to find in the sections 7.3.3-7.3.7.
7.3.1 A chronology of important dates
829 The German bishop Ansgar introduces Christianity to Sweden.
1004 (ca)
Olof Sk�tkonung was baptized, and made Christianity the official
religion of Sweden. Several pagan kings followed him, though.
1104 With the first bishop of Lund, Scandinavia was made a separate church
province, no longer belonging to Hamburg.
1155 Securing (conquering) of Finland for Catholicism.
1164 A separate arch-bishopric for Sweden was instituted in Uppsala. Until
1152 the archbishop in the Scanian town Lund in Denmark had been the
primate for all of Norden.
1187 Estonians invade and burn Sigtuna.
13th century
The Scanian Law is written down 1210. In the 1220:ies also the Swedish
provinces (landskap) start to write down their landskapslagar. 1240 the
movement has reached V�sterg�tland, and �ldre V�stg�talagen is written
down.
1226 Falu copper mine is opened.
1250 Stockholm becomes the capital, after Birka and Sigtuna, founded by
Birger Jarl, earl of Sweden and 1250-1266 guardian for the under age
king Valdemar.
1285 The Swedish king Birger (Ladul�s) claims supremacy over Gotland.
1293 Viipuri is established at/as the eastern border of Sweden.
1306 King Birger is imprisoned by his brothers duke Valdemar and duke Erik,
the so called H�tunaleken.
1317 King Birger imprisons his brothers, attempting to let them starve to
death, the so called Nyk�pings g�stabud, but is forced to escape out of
the country.
1319-1343
Personal union with Norway under king Magnus Eriksson.
1332-1361
Scania, Blekinge & Gotland ruled by the Swedish king after the Scanian
Archbishop and magnates had elected Magnus Eriksson, the king of Sweden
to become also king of the Scanian provinces.
1335 Slavery was abolished.
1344 St. Birgitta (1303-1373), Sweden's most important medieval saint,
starts to write down her Heavenly Revelations and decides to start a
convent in Vadstena. The Brigittine Order exists even today in many
countries.
1350 The Black Death (the Plague)
The first Swedish national law replaced the local landskapslagar.
1361 The Danish king Valdemar Atterdag conquers Gotland.
1397-1521
The Nordic kingdoms are united as the "Kalmar Union", led by Denmark.
1477 Uppsala university founded; the oldest university in the Nordic
countries.
1520 Stockholm blood bath.
1521 Gustav Vasa is elected regent.
1523 Gustav Vasa is elected king of Sweden.
1526 The New Testament and hymnal is printed in the Swedish language - 1541
is the whole Bible ready.
1527 Reformation decided at the diet of V�ster�s. (Being able to collect
taxes from the Church and pay off national debts had a lot to do with
it).
1542 Nils Dacke leads a rebellion in Sm�land.
1561 Estonia surrenders to Sweden.
1568 King Erik is imprisoned, and 1577 poisoned.
1593 Lutheranism is confirmed by a Church meeting in Uppsala.
1594-99
The Catholic Sigismund inherits the throne, Sweden in personal union
with Poland.
1600 Link�ping's blood bath.
1613 Sweden pays ransom for the fort at �lvsborg, where 1619 Gothenburg is
founded.
1617 Sweden gets the Kexholm province and Ingria ("Ingermanland") in the
peace of Stolbova with Russia.
1629 Poland cedes Livonia to Sweden in the peace of Altmark.
1632 The university in Dorpat is founded.
Gustav II Adolf is killed in the battle of L�tzen.
1640 The university in �bo is founded.
1645 Sweden gets Gotland, �sel (Saaremaa), J�mtland and H�rjedalen from
Denmark in the peace of Br�msebro.
1648 In the peace treaty of Westphalia, Sweden wins the German territories
(Vorpommern, R�gen, Stettin, Wismar, and Bremen-Verden) and becomes a
major power.
1658 The peace treaty of Roskilde gives Sweden Bohusl�n and the Scanian
provinces of Sk�ne, Blekinge and Halland. Bornholm is returned to
Denmark after an uprising 1660. The Swedish territory of today is
thereby collected.
1668 The university in Lund is founded.
1671-1675
Nobel masters have right to sentence their employees.
1676 The battle at Lund
1679 Gotland is annected by Sweden.
1697 The Stockholm Castle ("Three Crowns") burns down.
1700-21
The Great Northern War, with the battles at Narva 1700 and Poltava
1709. Sweden loses most of the German and all of the Baltic
territories. The power shifts from the king to the estates.
1742 The estates confirm the democratic forms for decisions at the village
meeting.
Celsius designs a thermometer.
1757 Storskifte, first reform of Swedish farming decided.
1766 The liberty of Press and "Offentlighetsprincipen" was declared as
constitution.
1771 Scheele discovers oxygen.
1772 Gustav III performs a coup and restores absolute monarchy.
1773 Torture is abolished in Sweden.
1778 Freedom of religion for aliens.
1790-91
Bellman publishes Fredman collections.
1792 Gustav III is assassinated at a masked ball.
1807 Enskifte, grand reform of Swedish farming decided. Villages were split
into separate farms, so farmers came to live closer to their land, more
distant from their neighbors.
1808-09
The War of Finland: the whole of Finland (extended also by a part of
the Swedish county Norrbotten) was joined to Russia. A new constitution
is written that puts an end to autocracy. "Offentlighetsprincipen" and
freedom of press get restored.
1810 One of Napoleon's generals, Jean Baptiste Bernadotte, is elected as the
heir to throne. Despite this Sweden joins the British-led anti-Napoleon
alliance. In 1818, he becomes king Carl XIV Johan.
1810-1832
G�ta Kanal is built across Sweden from S�derk�ping to Gothenburg.
1814-1905
Personal-union between Norway and Sweden.
1841 The parish meetings are reformed by law. It's settled that also
craftsmen, tradesmen and industrial workers should have right to vote
(if they earn enough).
1842 A national compulsory public education system, "Folkskolan", is
introduced, and is to be administrated by the parishes, followed 1843
by law on municipal self rule.
1845 Daughters get equal rights as sons to inherit land.
1848 The first Swedish Free Church congregation and baptizing.
1853 Electric telegraph between Stockholm and Uppsala.
1856 Railroad between �rebro and Ervalla.
1858 The prohibition of religious meetings in the absence of a state church
priest is abolished. 1860 it became allowed for Swedish citizens to
switch religious affiliation from the State Church to certain other
approved (Christian) Churches.
1859 Feminist pioneer Fredrika Bremer publishes Hertha.
1864 The estates refuse to live up to the promise by the king to support
Denmark when attacked by Prussia.
The obligation to yearly communion is abolished.
1866 The parliament is reformed. The system of the four estates is abandoned
and a new system of two chambers is introduced. The right to vote
remains dependent on income and gender.
1871 The parish meeting is reformed, majority decisions are enforced instead
of the former tradition of consensus, disciplinary matters are to be
decided by a committee.
1873-1914
Nordic currency and postal union.
1878 The metric system is introduced.
1896 Hjalmar Branting is elected the first Social Democrat in parliament.
1901 First Nobel Prize award.
The universal military service is organized. All men become trained for
defense of the country.
1902 Railroad from Narvik at the Norwegian coast to Kiruna where iron ore
mines get exploit.
1905 Norway declares itself independent of the Swedish king.
1906 Major spelling reform.
1907 Men get equal rights to vote.
1909 Strike by 300'000 Swedish workers, but no revolution.
1913 Law on public pension.
1918 A Swedish troop of 600 man intervene on �land, attempting to mediate
when the civil war of Finland led to Finnish troops fighting on �land.
The Finnish and Swedish troops leave after a German fleet had
approached.
1919 Law on eight hours workday (six days a week).
1921 Women get rights to vote equal to men.
1923 A proposition to prohibit alcoholic beverages is narrowly defeated in a
referendum.
1948 Count Folke Bernadotte was assassinated in Jerusalem by a Jewish
terrorist organization (lead by Yitzhak Shamir) when mediating between
Jews and Arabs.
1951 General right for members of the state Church to submit one's
resignation. General freedom of religion for Swedish citizen.
1953 A Swedish computer, BESK, is for a time the fastest in the world.
1957 A referendum supports a Social Democratic proposal for mandatory
participation in a retiring allowance scheme with minimal funds. The
alternative was a voluntary funding system. 40 years later a mandatory
funding system is decided.
1961 ?
The aircraft of Dag Hammarskj�ld, the UN secretary general, is shot
down during mediating in Africa.
1971 The Riksdag becomes unicameral. The king loses his political influence
(including. formation of the cabinet). Parliamentarism is written into
the constitution.
1979 Referendum says nuclear power is to be liquidated.
1981 A Russian submarine runs aground in the Blekinge archipelago.
1986 The prime minister Olof Palme is assassinated Feb 28.
April 26th nuclear radiation is discovered outside of the nuclear plant
Forsmark to the north of Stockholm. After some time it turns out to
come from Ukraine, but large areas of Sweden are struck, with slaughter
of reindeers and restrictions against using wild berries and mushrooms
for many following years.
1994 The ferry Estonia sank in �land's sea. About 900 drowned.
A referendum supports joining of the European Union.
As of January 1st 1995 Sweden became a full member of the EU.
7.3.2 A list of Swedish monarchs
the late viking age:
ca 990 Erik (the victorious)
ca 995-1020 Olof Sk�tkonung, baptized as a Christian in 1008
ca 1019-50 Anund Jakob
competing magnates:
ca 1050-60 Emund den gamle (the old)
ca 1160 Stenkil
ca 1066-80 Halsten
ca 1080 Blotsven
ca 1080-1110 Inge the elder
ca 1110-18 Filip
ca 1118-20 Inge the younger
ca 1130 Ragnvald
ca 1135-56 Sverker the elder
ca 1158-60 Erik IX den helige (St. Eric)
1160-67 Karl VII Sverkersson
1167-96 Knut Eriksson
1196-1208 Sverker Karlsson the younger
1208-16 Erik X Knutsson
1216-22 Johan Sverkersson
1222-29 Erik XI Eriksson l�spe och halte (lisp and limp)
1229-34 Knut Holmgersson den l�nge (the long)
1234-49 Erik XI Eriksson l�spe och halte (lisp and limp)
1250-66 Birger Jarl, earl (regent) of Sweden
1250-75 Valdemar Birgersson, under age until 1266
1275-90 Magnus Birgersson Ladul�s
1290-1318 Birger Magnusson, under age until 1298
1290-1317 Duke Erik Magnusson (regent)
1319-64 Magnus Eriksson, under age until 1332.
1363-89 Albrekt av Mecklenburg
the Kalmar Union:
1389-1412 Margareta (regent of the Kalmar Union)
1412-34 Erik of Pommerania (king of the Kalmar Union)
1434-36 Engelbrecht (king of Sweden)
1436-40 Karl Knutsson (king of Sweden)
1441-48 Kristoffer of Bavaria (king of the Kalmar Union)
1448-57 Karl Knutsson (regent of Sweden)
1457-64 Kristian I (king of the Kalmar Union 1448-1481)
1464 Karl Knutsson (regent of Sweden)
1464-66 Erik Axelsson (regent of Sweden)
1466-70 Karl Knutsson (regent of Sweden)
1471-97 Sten Sture the elder (regent of Sweden)
1497-1501 Hans (king of the Kalmar Union 1481-1513)
1501-03 Sten Sture the elder (regent of Sweden)
1504-11 Svante Nilsson Sture (regent of Sweden)
1512-20 Sten Sture the younger (regent of Sweden)
1520-21 Kristian II (king of the Kalmar Union 1513-1523)
Vasa:
1521-23 Gustav Eriksson Vasa (regent of Sweden)
1523-60 Gustav I Vasa (king of Sweden)
1560-68 Erik XIV [ dethroned ]
1568-92 Johan III
1592-99 Sigismund III Vasa of Poland and Sweden [ dethroned ]
1599-1600/1604 Johan, under age [ abdicated 1604 ]
1600-1611 Karl IX
1611-32 Gustav II Adolf
1632-54 Kristina, under age until 1644 [ abdicated ]
Pfalz:
1654-60 Karl X Gustav
1660-97 Karl XI, under age until 1672
1697-1718 Karl XII
1719-20 Ulrika Eleonora [ abdicated ]
1720-51 Fredrik I
Holstein-Gottorp:
1751-71 Adolf Fredrik
1771-92 Gustav III
1792-1809 Gustav IV Adolf, under age until 1796 [ dethroned ]
1809-18 Karl XIII
Bernadotte:
1818-44 Karl XIV Johan
1844-59 Oscar I
1859-72 Karl XV
1872-1907 Oscar II
1907-50 Gustaf V
1950-73 Gustaf VI
1973- Karl XVI Gustaf
7.3.3 the medieval time
500-700
Germanic expansion through Scandinavia. Svenonians ("Svear") come to play a
dominating role, and the Goths ("G�tar") a subordinate role.
800-1050
Viking age. It was a prosperous period. Swedish Vikings traveled trading fur
and slave to Russia, Byzantium and all the way down to the Arab caliphate at
Baghdad. The kingdom of Svears gets a leading position, at least they get
best known abroad, its capital is in Gamla ("Old") Uppsala. Svea-Vikings
possibly inhabited also �land and coastal areas in Finland and Norrland.
11th century
Sweden becomes Christian, and the country is united into a single kingdom.
Due to pressure from the mighty Danish kingdom, the warring landscapes of
Sweden settle into an uneasy truce and start to elect a king to rule them as
one kingdom. This kingdom was often called the "Svea kingdom", because
traditionally this was the only stable entity and the only kingdom that
foreigners had heard of. 1076 Bishop Adam of Bremen writes the history of
the bishopric of Hamburg, describing the christianization of Sweden, which
is one of our main sources to the early history of Scandinavia.
1050-1397
Sweden is ruled by kings elected by the nobility - most of the time from two
rival dynasties. The title king of the Svears did however not give much
power. Neither among the Svears nor in more distant parts of the country.
The forces of particularism were very strong during the first centuries and
often there would be two or three claimants to the throne engaged in civil
war.
This time is characterized by the power being divided on so many local
magnates assuring no individual command too much power, and becoming a
threat against the other magnates. A suitable king could well be chosen from
G�taland, perhaps because that person would find it hard to make his power
be felt in Svealand.
Formerly kings were elected by each "landsting" (that was a combined court
and law-giving meeting of the free men in a province). In 1319 the peasantry
is officially, but not in practice, again participating in an election of
king.
1152 a papal cardinal refuse to organize a separate Swedish archdiocese
tired of the quarrel between G�tar and Svear, who couldn't agree on one of
the two alternatives Link�ping in �sterg�tland or Uppsala in Uppland.
Sweden conquers the Finnish woods for Catholicism through a series of
"crusades". The plains in southern Finland of today, �land and most of the
coast on both side of the Bothnic sea is believed to have been colonized by
Svears already. (After the first crusade 1155 Uppland was rewarded with the
archdiocese.) Finland is not yet participating in the elections of kings.
The dominance in the Baltics by the Gutar from Gotland island is competed by
the Germans, who from 1161has an agreement with the Gutar. The situation for
G�tar and Svear is not improved, but Gotland gets weaker, with civil war in
the end of the 13:th century, and defeat under the Danish king Valdemar
Atterdag 1361. Swedish kings had ambitions to rule also over Gotland, but
the Gutar were not too interested.
The first one to yield such power that he could issue grants of land in both
G�taland and Svealand (showing that he had territorial power), was Knut
Eriksson (late 12:th century). In his early days this son of Erik the saint
used the title king of G�taland, but after coming out on top in a civil war
he also called himself king of Svealand and also used the titles together.
Before his days the king can be said to have wielded power only with the
consent of the local upper class.
1248 at the church meeting in Sk�nninge (in �sterg�tland), on demand from
the catholic pope, the Swedish church introduces celibacy for priests, and
the priests should now be appointed by the bishop. Earlier, priests were
elected by their parish and they married.
15th century
After 1397 Sweden and Denmark (including Finland, Norway and Iceland) were
united in the Kalmar Union under the Danish queen Margarethe. Margarethe
never held the title Queen of Sweden, but was instead appointed as
"authorized agent" (Fru och fullm�ktige av Sverige). This period is
characterized by struggle between the nobility, the commons and the
queen/king.
The union was a reaction against the strong influence German merchants had
around the Baltics, illustrated by a German being elected king in Sweden in
the late 14th century, but the union gets questioned both by the nobility,
when they are discontent, and by the commons, when they experience worsening
conditions. Germans continue to play a dominating role in towns and mining.
1434-36
A rebellion led by Engelbrecht is motivated by the king of the Kalmar union
breaking a promise not to change laws or taxes without asking the people. In
January 1435 a diet appointed Engelbrecht as captain for the Swedish realm,
and as such he negotiated with the union-king that year - with poor results.
In response to demands from the country the four estates were summoned to a
new diet in Arboga 1436; which decided to continue the rebellion.
Engelbrecht was elected king. But then the two higher estates (nobility and
clergy) chose to appoint another man as captain for the realm, while the two
lower estates supported Engelbrecht. The result: Engelbrecht being
assassinated, and succeeded by his allied the high-born Karl Knutsson Bonde,
Engelbrecht's "Marsk" (commander-in-chief), who then kills the most famous
supporters of Engelbrecht.
In the following years all four estates are participating in diets.
1449-1450
King Karl is crowned to king of Norway in opposition against the Danish king
Christian, who some months earlier had been elected king of Norway. (King
Christian I was the first in the Oldenburg dynasty, and since the crown of
Norway was to be inherited, the election was regarded as illegal by many
Scandinavian magnates.) 1450 Karl Knutsson is forced by the Swedish state
council to give up the Norwegian crown, after pressure from the Union king
in Denmark. The atrocities calm down after Karl Knutsson has devasted Scania
and put the towns V�, Helsingborg and Lund to fire.
1463-71
Swedish peasants formed armies at many occasions, fighting the smaller but
professional troops of the union-king. The peasants were supported, and
often encouraged, by the separatists among the nobility. In 1471 the
election of a separatist as regent for Sweden led to a relative calmness.
1497
The national council tried to depose the separatist regent for Sweden who
declared he had been appointed by all of the people in Sweden through the
estates at the diet. The king of the union, king Hans of Denmark, hired an
army which vanquished the regents separatist army, but the national council
soon accepts the four estates as their in practice highest authority.
1520:ies
When the Danish king Christian II is coronated in Stockholm, he executed a
hundred men, burghers and noblemen, who belonged to the separatist
Sture-party. This so called Stockholm blood bath causes again a rebellion in
Sweden which is led by Gustaf Vasa.
With the help of the Hansa-city of L�beck, Vasa defeats the Danes and is
elected king. The Kalmar Union ceases to exist. From 1544 the crown is to be
inherited. As a consequence of the civil war in Denmark 1533-36 the German
Hansa loses its strong influence over Scandinavia.
Reformation is confirmed by the diet of V�ster�s 1527. Sweden becomes
Lutheran and the Church is stripped of its riches.
One of the important consequences of the reformation is the obligation for
the parishes to engage a parish clerk responsible for educating the people
in reading the Bible and/or the catechism, and for the clergy to examine the
peasants yearly in their homes. Many also learned to write.
Gustav Vasa encouraged the mining leading to increased demand on workers
which was satisfied by internal migration - not the least from Finland.
7.3.4 the consolidation of the state
1560-1660
The construction of Sweden as a Great Power of Europe. The nobility fights
for its rights and privileges.
Gustaf Vasa's son, the mentally unstable Erik XIV, becomes king 1560, and in
1561 he starts Sweden's overseas conquests by capturing northern Estonia
from the Teutonic Knights.
During Erik's regime measures against corrupt sheriffs and despotic nobility
were prioritized, and a peasant army was organized (the first time in Europe
on the side of the authorities'). In 1563 the highest nobility, the Danish
king and the Duke Johan (of �land and parts of Finland) had started a
combined war and coup d'etat. In despise for the peasants (and discontent at
the king) the noble general refuses to use peasant infantry in battle.
(Which saved the Danish army that time.)
King Erik XIV chose a commoner as chancellor, J�ran Persson, and 1568 Erik
married a common soldier's daughter Karin M�nsdotter after unsuccessfully
courting e.g Elizabeth I of England and Mary Stuart of Scotland. The Swedish
nobility acts against Erik's plans wishing to get the king closer to them
through marriage with any of their daughters. In the same year his brother
Duke Johan, who had been pardoned after the coup 1563, turns against Erik
and imprisons him. The Duke becomes king Johan III and Erik, having been
sent from one prison to another for nine years, is finally poisoned in 1577
after several death sentences by the national council, however never
executed due to fear of the public reaction.
King Johan doesn't summon the peasantry to the next diets, declares commons
to be unfit as chancellors (Erik's chancellor J�ran Persson get severely
tortured before beheading) and pay back to the nobility by reliefs and more
privileges.
Immigration encouraged
Skillful smiths were recruited from what today is Belgium; Dutchmen were
recruited to build new towns, particularly Gothenburg; Scottish men were
hired as soldiers. The western parts of the kingdom, great uninhabited woods
around the sea V�nern, were colonized by skillful farmers from Savolax in
Finland encouraged by the kings brother Duke Karl (Duke of Dalarna and other
western parts of Svealand).
The Finns from western Finland, who came to work in Svealand's towns, mines,
industries and agriculture were soon integrated.
A popular tradition represented also in school books describes the relations
between the Swedes and the migrants from eastern Finland as violent.
Established historical science and official sources give no such
indications. The Savolaxians in the woods were isolated and remained
culturally different for hundreds of years (the migration was ended at 1680
when maybe 10'000 Finns had moved to the woods of western Svealand). The
annals from the courts give the impression of the Finns living in peaceful
co-existence with the Swedish peasants.
When the situation had settled after the Thirty Years' War Sweden's
territories were bigger than ever later or before. Inside the new realm
people came to move between the different parts. A policy of swedifying hit
the new provinces, maybe most in Scandinavia, including founding
universities and change of priests and some noble men. The year 1682 the
king decided that Finns had to learn Swedish or to return to Finland. This
official policy was however impossible to enforce in the distant woods, but
has remained until recent days.
1590-95
Sweden fights a smaller war with Russia that ends with the peace of Teusina
and the recognition of Sweden's right to northern Estonia.
1596-99
Civil war between king Sigismund of Poland and Sweden and his uncle, Duke
Karl. Most nobility supported the king, but Sigismund is kicked out, and the
Duke becomes king Karl IX. (Appointed by the estates 1600 although the
under-age crown prince Johan, son of king Johan III, rightfully stood closer
to the throne. Prince Johan abdicated 1604.) The brief personal union with
Poland is over. King Karl follows up on Erik's anti-feudal policy, while his
son Gustav II Adolf instead increase the privileges of the nobility for
instance by monopoly to army- and state-offices.
1630-48
Gustav II Adolf (Gustavus Adolphus) interferes in the Thirty Years' War
(1616-48) and Swedish troops fight in Russia, Poland, Austria and Germany.
The "Lion of the North" achieves legendary status as the defender of
Protestants, he receives crushing victories but his appetite for conquest
grows and eventually the king is killed in the battle of L�tzen, 1632, after
which the war fortunes waded back and forth for the following 16 years.
Gustav's daughter Christina becomes queen; as she is still under age until
1644 the country is led by Sweden's perhaps most famous statesman Axel
Oxenstierna.
The year 1638 Sweden's American colony, "New Sweden" (in present day
Delaware) is founded and settled by Swedish and Finnish pioneers. The colony
remains in Swedish hands only for 17 years, and is lost to the Dutch.
1644-54
The reign of queen Christina, the daughter of Gustav II Adolf, was at the
same time one of favoring arts, culture, science and philosophy, and on the
other hand a period of continued expensive wars on the continent, which had
ruined Sweden's economy by raising hundreds of new families into nobility
who were exempted from taxation. This was more or less made undone by her
followers, her cousin king Karl X and his son Karl XI, in the second half of
the century.
The year 1654 the queen converts to Catholicism and gives up the crown. The
conversion of the daughter of the greatest enemy of Catholicism was a
brilliant propaganda victory for the Catholic counter-reformation. She
spends the rest of her life in Rome.
1675-79
Denmark declares war. King Karl XI, who newly have came to age, discovers
the great fleet and the state finances being ruined. Scania is taken back by
the Danes, then again conquered by the Swedes. The diet 1680 makes the state
council (representing the highest nobility), which was governing when the
king was under age, personally responsible for the bad state finances. The
diet also makes the king independent of the state council, and the diet also
accepted to hand over its lawgiving power to the king. The king Karl XI used
his dictatorship also for radical reforms of the state administration, the
Army and the education of the commoners. On later diets the nobility was
(collectively) forced to give back some of the land which had been given
them as reward for services to the State.
1680-1720
Successive incorporation of the Scanian provinces in the Swedish national
state. 1680 the province Blekinge is declared incorporated in Sweden in
connection with the construction of a navy base. 1682/83 the Scanian civil
and clerical laws were replaced by Swedish laws. 1693 Halland is
incorporated in Sweden.
1700-21
The Great Northern War. Sweden is attacked by an alliance of Denmark, Poland
and Russia. The young king Karl XII invades Denmark forcing it to accept a
separate peace. He then turns toward Russia, lands in Estonia with 10 000
men and achieves a glorious victory in the battle of Narva against a three
times larger Russian army.
With Russia and Denmark beaten, Karl XII ignores all suggestions of
negotiating peace and attacks Poland. This gives Peter I of Russia time to
raise a new army and to start reconquering the Swedish territories. Karl XII
eventually succeeds in subduing Poland, and starts a new campaign against
Russia heading for Moscow. The troops that were planned to come to aid the
main army, however, never manage to show up, and Karl is forced to turn
south to Ukraine because of problems with supply. There he suffers a
crushing defeat in the battle of Poltava June 28th 1709 and most of the
Swedish army surrenders while Karl XII manages to escape with a thousand men
to Turkey. He spent several years there trying to form a new alliance
against Russia.
With Finland occupied by Russians, most of the Baltic provinces lost and
Sweden itself threatened by a Russian invasion, the estates decide 1714 that
a peace is necessary, but since the king was still in Turkey a messenger was
sent there to inform that Sweden would accept any peace terms given unless
the king soon returns to Sweden. Karl XII reacts immediately, rides through
the whole Europe with only one man accompanying him in 15 days. After the
king had returned, all talk of peace was banned. In 1716 he still manages to
raise an army of 40 000 men, and attacks Norway in 1718.
Karl XII gets killed 1718 while laying siege to Fredrikshald in Norway. To
this date, it isn't known whether the bullet came from the Norwegian or
Swedish side. Whether he was assassinated or not, his death put a welcome
end to the Swedish campaigns and the exhausted nation could eventually
achieve peace.
Peace treaties with Hanover, Prussia, and Denmark leave Sweden only
Stralsund, R�gen and parts of Vorpommern of its former "German territories".
The most severe of the peace treaties is, however, the one with Russia
signed in Nystad in 1721. Sweden loses all its Baltic territories, the
southeastern part of Finland, and ultimately its status as a major power.
7.3.5 toward democracy
1718-72
The so called Age of Freedom. Political power shifts from the king to the
estates. (With the new constitution the incorporation of Scania and other
conquered provinces is completed.)
A two-party system develops, and Arvid Horn, born in Finland and one of king
Karl XII's best militaries and administrators, became the most well-known
prime minister, totally out-shining the king Fredrik I who actually came on
the throne as the consort of the abdicated queen. During the period
1720-1738 Arvid Horn pilots Sweden between Russian and French conflicts, but
resigns finally accused for weakness and exaggerated fear for wars. His
party gets the nickname the "Nightcaps" opposed by the pride "Hats."
In the country the parish meetings are now established as deciding
authority, electing priests, organizing common work and poor relief, and
stating moral and juridical sentences (the latter without formal right). In
1742 the estates confirm the democratic forms for decisions at the village
meeting. The reason is unclear. The institution had worked well for many
hundreds of years. Maybe the lords in the new more feudal southern provinces
made problems, maybe the increase of crofters and impecunious caused
tension.
Year 1766 the censure of printed matters is abolished. The campaign is led
by the priest Anders Chydenius from Finland. The liberty of Press was
declared as constitution, including documents of the state administration
with few exceptions made publicly available, the "Offentlighetsprincipen".
1741-43
"The War of the Hats". The French-minded "Hat party" advocating aggressive
foreign politics became a majority in the Riksdag and declares war on
Russia. The war goes miserably and Finland is occupied by Russia. In the
peace treaty of Turku, Russia however agrees to gaining only fairly minor
territories in eastern Finland because the Swedish estates agree to having
Russian-approved prince-bishop Adolf Fredrik of L�beck to enter the Swedish
throne.
1772-1809
Gustav III performs a coup 1772 and restores absolute monarchy; the
beginning of the "Gustavian era". Gustav's rule is authoritarian and freedom
of speech is limited, but in the spirit of "enlightened autocracy" he pushes
through many important reforms that the estates had been unable to decide on
during the Age of Freedom. Swedish economy strengthens, laws are made more
humane, new towns and roads are built, the navy is reformed and arts are
favored.
1788-90
Gustav's war against Russia. Sweden attacks Russia hoping to reconquer
eastern parts of Finland and Ingria ("Ingermanland"). The troops are poorly
motivated, the war goes badly, a rebellion known as Anjala-alliance rises
among the Finnish officers and Gustav has to stop the Russian campaign.
Meanwhile, Denmark attacks Sweden, but finds England and Prussia opposing
all military actions in the Danish straits, and is forced to accept a truce.
In June 1789 the war in the eastern front is continued, but with no
significant advance on land and several defeats on sea. However, on July 9th
1790 in Svensksund on the Finnish coast, the Swedish navy achieves a
glorious victory in the largest naval battle ever fought on the Baltic sea.
After this, Russia accepts a peace offered by Sweden but the peace involves
no ceding of territories.
Year 1792 Gustav attends a masked ball in Stockholm's opera despite the
several warnings about conspirators planning an assassination. Around
midnight, he is mortally wounded by a certain J.J.Anckarstr�m, and dies a
couple of weeks later. Duke Charles becomes a regent while the young crown
prince Gustav Adolf is under age.
1792-1809
Russia had agreed in the treaty of Tilsit to pressure Sweden to join the
Napoleonic anti-British trade blockade, but Sweden refuses to listen to the
Russian ultimatums and scare-tactics and remains opposed to Napoleon.
Eventually, when all diplomatic means have failed, Russia attacks Finland
1808. Despite brief victories, the war goes badly for Sweden and by the
spring of 1809 the Finnish troops had surrendered, the main army had
retreated to Sweden and in the peace treaty of Fredrikshamn September 1809
the whole of Finland was joined to Russia. With the loss of Finland it is
made evident that the strength of the Swedish army was far more depending on
soldiers from Finland than her 20% share of the population would suggest.
For the defense of Sweden's territories an extra conscription for an extra
army was made among males below the age of 26 years. Unfortunately their
training was far too brief, and then at the fronts in the south and the west
they were left with deficient support, why many died from hunger and
freezing. Because of the disastrous war Gustav IV Adolf loses power and a
new constitution is written that puts an end to Gustavian autocracy.
The constitution was signed June 6th 1809 by duke Charles, again regent
after the king had been dethroned. Duke Charles is elected king, and the
Danish prince Christian August, who led the Norwegian government and army,
was elected to crown prince of Sweden - obviously with a Nordic union
planned, but the Danish king Frederik VI opposed this idea, unless he
himself was elected.
May 1810 the Swedish crown prince dies unexpectedly; his big brother accepts
to succeed him, but suddenly a French Marshall Jean Baptiste Bernadotte
announces his candidacy, and in solely ten days the state council, the king
and the estates change their minds. The election is unanimous.
1814-1905
In return for its anti-Napoleonic stance, Sweden receives Norway in the
treaty of Vienna, and the two countries are united in a personal union, with
Sweden occupying a leading position.
During this period Sweden develops from a poor agrarian country, to a less
poor agrarian country - and then industrialism begins. The old villages are
divided, each farm get its fields collected; the democratic village meeting
loses its function when each farm has its own fences. New methods and crops
(potatoes!) are introduced by farmers now independent of the conservative
neighbors' opinion. The life expectancy rise - as does the number of
crofters and vagrants.
In the beginning of the 19th century the vodka consumption is the highest
ever, estimated to 24 liters 100% pure alcohol per inhabitant. Paradoxally
the slightly improved living conditions, as indicated by longer life
expectancy, lead to a new kind of misery with a growing number of peasants
without property. The crofters, farm-hands etc form a rural proletariat
which grows fast while becoming relatively all more impoverished. As a
reaction Social-purity ideas grow, leading among other things to reforms of
the mandatory schools, of the political representation and of the municipal
responsibilities for poor. 1860 it becomes prohibited for ordinary citizens
to make their own vodka.
In 1831 the newspaper Aftonbladet is founded, important because of it's
struggle to increase the freedom of the press. The king, Karl XIV Johan, at
the time had the right to retract permissions to publish newspapers. When
Aftonbladet criticized the king, he retracted the publish rights - but the
paper immediately reappeared as "The Second Aftonbladet", "The Third
Aftonbladet" and all the way to the "28th Aftonbladet".
1850-90
About one million Swedes moved to America during this period, but the
emigration slowed after 1900 because of improved conditions of living and
increased industrialization. Norway, industrialized before Sweden, was an
enticements on poor Swedes who couldn't afford the fare to America.
1845-1923
Women get equal rights in society
From 1845 daughters inherit as much land as their male siblings. (Until then
the sons had got twice as much.)
In 1858 unmarried women get right to dispose own incomes and possessions and
also to run enterprises, and come of age at 25 years (including right to
vote at the parish meeting in case they earn enough).
Unmarried women get right to state employment in the 1860:ies. Higher
education for women is organized in some towns.
In 1874 married women get right to dispose their income.
As late as 1921 married women get total right to dispose their own
possessions and act on their own judicial responsibility, and also rights to
vote in parliamentary elections. Finally 1923 also the right to higher
positions in the state administrations.
1880:ies
The Scandinavian democratic traditions develop in the working class -
initially in the free Churches, the temperance movement (IOGT was
established 1879) and the workers unions which all grow to strong democratic
forces. Education extension was an important part of their work. Debates and
proclamations are made, from the 1870:ies public parades are organized to
express the will of the people.
The Social Democratic party is founded 1889.
20th century
Sweden manages to stay out of both World Wars, achieves a high standard of
living and becomes an urbanized welfare state.
The parishes are merged to municipalities and then merged again to even
bigger municipalities, and then again.
Until 1917 the governments are mostly Conservative, 1917-1926 Social
Democrats form the Cabinet, sometimes in coalition with Liberals. 1932 the
Social Democrats return to the Cabinet, and except for a few months the
summer 1936 they remain at power until 1976.
1900-14
The union with Norway is ceased without violence, and almost without
threats.
The workers unions organize several massive strikes, frightening the upper
class. The proposal to equal votes for men was made by a conservative
cabinet which feared a revolution as the alternative.
7.3.7 social security
1945-1960
During the 1940'ies the agrarian proletarians are transformed to tenant
farmers, and house maids which now have gotten regulated working hours
become a very rare sight. The Social Democrats continue to dominate the
society, in the parliament in cooperation with the Agrarians when
neccessary. The industry expands. People leave the countryside for the
towns. Sick insurance, pensions, maternal allowance and yearly vacations are
expanded. The urbanization leads to a new kind of social misery with
shortage of housing and "wild" adolescent gangs in the towns. Immigrants are
welcomed by the industries: Germans, Italians, Hungarians, Finland-Swedes
and Finns.
1960-1980
Women participate in the caring for children and elderly as employees by the
municipalities. Taxes rise. A surge of immigrants are engaged in the
industries. Vacations get limited to not less than 5 weeks yearly. 40 hours
working week is enforced. Strong laws against arbitrary sacking of workers
are decided and the unions get right to participate in board meetings for
companies.
The educational system is made uniform with 10 years of mandatory
theoretical school with minimized freedom to choose subjects followed by 3
years of specializing ("Gymnasium"). Matriculation examination is abolished,
as are apprentices. All secondary schools give access to higher studies, the
mark system is debated and changed.
The king loses the last executive power. Princesses get equal rights with
princes to inherit the throne.
Swedish politicians tend to start their careers in younger years, before
having accomplished in any profession (Olof Palme is one of the first
examples), and the reduced number of municipal politicians contribute to a
growing alienation between politicians and the electorate.
The Swedish Social Democratic governments are eager to act in international
politics. Preferably on the "anti-imperialist" side against the United
States - and sometimes against the Soviet Union. Olof Palme belonged to the
Swedes who were strongly engaged against the Vietnam war, which led to the
US ambassador leaving Sweden for some years.
In Sweden communists were hunted in the unions and among the employees in
governmental institutions (as hospitals!). In the 1970:ies Jan Guillou, an
investigating journalist at a left-wing periodical, was imprisoned for
revealing the close cooperation between the Social Democratic party and a
secret organization registering people with leftist opinions threatening the
society. Jan Guillou became some 15 years later Sweden's most famous novel
writer with his series about the super-hero baron Carl G Hamilton in the
Swedish secret service.
In elections to the parliament 1973 the left block and the anti-Socialist
block got 175 seats each. Olof Palme remained as prime minister. Many laws
were decided after drawing of lots. The number of seats is made unequal.
1976-1994
The political majority in the parliament changes almost every 6:th year.
Waves of refugees arrive but fail to find employment.
Plans to force companies to give shares to the workers unions every year are
discussed, decided and abandoned.
The defense forces are successively reduced.
In 1976 the leader for the Center party, Thorbj�rn F�lldin, becomes the
first non-Social Democratic prime minister since 1936 after an intense
campaign in favor of environment protection and against nuclear power. In a
referendum 1979 between three proposals to close the thirteen nuclear power
plants the Social Democratic version wins a relative majority and is
interpreted as use of all nuclear power is to be liquidated in thirty years.
In the autumn 1981 a Russian submarine runs a-ground in what the military
calls inner security zone of the navy base area in the Blekinge archipelago.
After half a day an inhabitant on the island informs the military about the
unexpected guest. A Russian navy gathers at the territorial border, but
leaves after the Swedish prime minister Thorbj�rn F�lldin publicly declared
he had ordered the Swedish defense forces to use all means against further
intruders on the sea or in the air. The Russians denied accusations of
having brought atomic weapons to Sweden, as the US navy always had done when
they had come on (announced) visits. After this perturbing episode the
Swedish navy hunted Russian mini- and macro-submarines intensely for the
following ten years. Then it turned out that some, most or all of the hunted
objects had been minks.
Big devaluations solve some problems and cause other. In the 1980's a lot of
Swedish industrial profits are gambled away on continental real estates.
February 28th 1986, the Social Democratic prime minister Olof Palme, who had
dominated Swedish politics in the 70's and 80's, is assassinated while
returning from movies. A political heir of Tage Erlander (another
influential Swedish prime minister, in power 1946-69), he had an
international reputation as an architect of the Swedish welfare model and an
outspoken advocate of disarmament. He was the first Swedish leader to be
killed since king Gustav III. Despite feverish and almost tragicomic
investigations, the motive and the killer still remain unknown.
At the beginning of the 1990:ies the employment drops drastically, as does
the value of the currency, and the state budget deficit explodes. Subsidies
are diminished for sick insurance, maternal and paternal leave, unemployment
insurance... The bad times result in some changes on higher positions in the
banks and industries, and it turns out that their boards (also state owned
banks and companies) have granted the management fabulous pensions. The
Social Democrats have propagandized much against the Bildt cabinet policy,
populistically claiming it to strike hard against the weakest among the
people. The people got surprised when the Social Democrats, after the
election of 1994 back at power, in the parliament do much harder cuts in the
social security system.
The ferry Estonia en route between Tallin and Stockholm with over a thousand
people on-board sank into the icy Baltic September 28th 1994; only circa 130
were saved. Of the drowned, the vast majority were Swedes, and the disaster
shook the whole nation.
Latest news
In 1996 The Social Democratic party elected a new chairman, G�ran Persson,
namesake to the chancellor of Erik XIV, who becomes prime minister and the
sixth leader of the party in 107 years. Persson's supporters have acted
against Mona Sahlin, proposed by the retiring Ingvar Carlsson, spreading
(true) rumors about her bad capability to take care of her own economy, and
her purchase of diapers and chocolate with a government credit card. Mona
Sahlin is made impossible and leaves the political life. G�ran Persson is
caught shop-lifting chocolate, and the former minister of Justice (in mr
Bildt's cabinet) is forgiven purchase of shoes and dresses with her
government credit card. The strongest criticism comes from Per Uncle,
another former minister of mr Bildt's, who turns out to be the one the
prosecutor finds his greatest interest in.
Several municipal politicians and managers leave their positions after
having been too self-indulgent with municipal credit cards on night clubs,
brothels and holiday trips. The unveiling of this habit was introduced by a
Scanian radio journalist, Janne Svensson, who soon got employed as secretary
for the Social Democratic mayor of Malm�.
The former leader for the (Social) Liberal party leads an "independent"
commission investigating espionage on a private TV station where a reporter
had unveiled embarrassing facts about HSB, a national organization for
housing societies, not without ties to the Social Democratic party. The
espionage is ordered by the manager for a public relation firm with close
ties to the Social Democratic party, but the commission declares that HSB
could not be shown to have aimed at espionage - only at a vicious slander
campaign. The HSB manager, who over a bottle of whiskey had commissioned the
PR-firm manager, should not have acted on behalf of HSB.
- The commission worked on the behalf of HSB.
The European Union, which Sweden entered 1995, is among many perceived as
the greatest threat against the Swedish democracy (except for wars).
The alienation between the electorate and the elected becomes worse.
------------------------------
Subject: 7.4 Main tourist attractions
7.4.1 Stockholm area
Stockholm was originally established (c. 1250) by Birger Jarl as a defense
outpost against the Baltic pirates on one of the channel islands that now
make up Old Town. The city gained importance during the late Middle Ages as
an exporter of metals, timber, and furs from its hinterland, but was still
second after Uppsala in importance. Following the Stockholm Bloodbath and
the subsequent overthrow of Danish rule in 1523, Stockholm became the center
of the new Swedish kingdom. Under Gustav II Adolf (ruled 1611-32) Sweden
became a major European power. His daughter and successor Christina (ruled
1632-54) established Stockholm as an intellectual and cultural center.
Stockholm is sometimes known as the Venice of the North. It is the cultural,
educational, and industrial center of Sweden. The heart of the city is built
on 13 small islands at the junction where Lake M�laren joins the Baltic Sea.
Remnants of medieval Stockholm survive on three small islands known as Gamla
Stan (the Old Town). They are Stadsholmen (The City Island) , Riddarholmen
(Knight Island), and Helgeandsholmen (The Island of the Holy Spirit). The
islands are closely connected and form the "Staden mellan broarna", or "city
between the bridges".
Stadsholmen has old gabled houses and narrow streets not found in other
sections. Facing the water is the Royal Palace, which was completed in 1760,
and is open to tourists. Nearby is the Storkyrkan (cathedral), the oldest
building of the city (although the exterior is baroque), which houses e.g
the famous medieval sculpture of St. Georg and the Dragon by the German
sculptor Berndt Notke.
Cobblestone streets wind up from the palace to the old Stortorget, or Great
Market, the site of the Bloodbath of 1520. Eighty-two Swedish noblemen were
executed in the market by Danish King Christian II. Close to Stadsholmen is
Riddarholmen, where many of the Swedish rulers have been buried in
Riddarholmskyrkan. On the tiny Helgeandsholmen, or Island of the Holy
Spirit, where the House of Parliament stands.
North of the Old Town are Norrmalm, the modern business and theater
district, and �stermalm, a resedential section. S�dermalm, a manufacturing
center, is in the city's southern section, across the bridge leading from
Old Town. The Town Hall, which is Stockholm's symbol, and most of the city
government offices are on Kungsholmen, a large island west of Norrmalm.
Stockholm is famous for its cleanliness and for its large number of parks
and open spaces. On Djurgarden (a peninsula reserved for parkland and a
cultural center) is Skansen, an open-air museum.
The University of Stockholm, founded in 1877 as a private institution, was
taken over by the state in 1960 and is now the country's largest university.
The Nobel Prizes are awarded annually in Stockholm, with the exception of
the Nobel Peace Prize, which is presented in Oslo, Norway.
Major museums include the National Museum (of art), the Moderna Museet
(Museum of modern art), the Vasa Museum (where a magnificient, 17th Century
royal warship Vasa is on display; it sunk in the harbour on it's first
journey in 1628 and was well preserved in the water for over 300 years until
it was lifted in 1961. It's a must for every Stockholm visitor), the
Historical Museum, the Nordic Museum, the Museum of Natural History (with
Cosmonova omni theatre), the Museum of Naval History, the Skansen outdoor
museum, the medieval museum, and the Royal Armoury (Livrustkammaren) where
all sorts of fascinating artifacts from the history of the kingdom are on
display, including crown jewels.
In August each year we have the Stockholm Water Festival, an annual cultural
and entertainment event sponsored by the city council and local business
life. The one and a half week festival offers special exhibitions, concerts,
shows, fireworks, an impromptu shopping mall in the Old Town with street
restaurants, outdoor movie shows, activities for children, etc. The offcial
guide of the festival each year lists more than 1 000 festival events.
The Stockholm archipelago with tens and tens of thousands of islands is very
popular in the summer. You can take the white Waxholm boats to the
archipelago. A popular area for summer houses.
Have a tour around Stockholm by sightseeing boat. Or see the city on a
regular boat trip. In that case, note Skeppsholmen and Kastellholmen,
formerly navy base. Then get the most condensed view of the old town.
Further out, note Waldermarsudde, home of artist late Prince Eugen, now
museum. Young artists will give concerts here summertime. Then a white
building with towers, home of late Marcus Wallenberg. Finally two beautiful
houses from baroque era on point Blockhusudden.
Drottningholm. Accessed by land or by boat. Home of the royal family.
Theatre with advanced scene mechanism from 18th century, in use today. Park
in the style of Versailles, with "Kina slott", romantic building in Chinese
style.
Open-air museum Skansen in Djurg�rden should preferably be seen when all
workshops are open which will not be until the end of August. At least some
of them should however be open every Sunday. Skansen also has a Zoo. You can
get there with the museum tram line leaving from Norrmalmstorg.
Suggested walks or bike rides around Stockholm
* Along shore Norr M�larstrand. Outdoor cafe. Then one will come to the
City Hall. Enter the tower.
* From Djurg�rden eastwards along the shore to Blockhusudden. Bring a
picnic basket early in the morning.
* On the hills of S�dermalm, with red cottages dispersed among the stone
houses. Fine views over the water.
* Along the shores of Reimersholme. Then, on the way to bridge
V�sterbron, pass by 'Lasse i parken' (cafe in a red cottage). Go over
V�sterbron and again come to Norr M�larstrand.
* On Skeppsholmen and Kastellholmen. Museum of Eastern antiques. Youth
hostel and outdoor cafe.
There is no particular restaurant area in Stockholm. Stureplan and around
however is somewhat of a meeting place. It is also close to water. In later
years the south side (S�dermalm), especially around Medborgarplatsen, has
emerged as an important area of restaurants and pubs. There are over a
hundred of them within 5 minutes walking distance from Medborgarplatsen.
Plenty of choir concerts are given in the churches and the choirs are
generally very good. There are some places close to Stockholm which should
be seen, if possible.
* Gripsholm castle, accessed e.g. with s/s Mariefred on a one-day trip;
oldest part was built in the 1380's. Interesting because it's different
styles inside reflect different epochs.
* Home and orangery of the famous botanist Carl von Linne in Uppsala.
* Hammarby, east of Uppsala. Summer resort of Linne, used by him for
lecturing.
* �sterbybruk, north of Uppsala. The pre-industrial factories called
'bruk' are peculiar for Sweden. A 'bruk' was a complete community. They
are dispersed throughout middle Sweden. �sterbybruk is very well
preserved.
* Skokloster castle at lake M�laren, from about the same time as
man-of-war Vasa. Armoury collection. (Rent a car in order to visit the
previous four items.)
* The remains of Birka in lake M�laren. Birka could be considered capital
of Sweden during the Viking age. Best accessed by boat.
Suggested one-day archipelago trips from Stockholm
* Sandhamn on island Sand�n. Have beefsteak lunch onboard on the steamer.
From the harbour, walk southwards to village Sandhamn. Then follow the
southern shore of the island to point Trouville. Find a suitable way
back to the village. Be careful to enter the right boat back. Avoid
Saturdays and Sundays.
* Kymmend�. Strindberg's Hems�. Restricted area. Ask for permission at
the police office.
* R�dl�ga. Small formerly fishing village. Forest meadows and hardwood
forest, very impressing that far out in the sea. It will however be at
its best in early summer. The main island of this detached archipelago
is rather small and will be walked around in one hour. Choose between
Saturdays or Sundays.
* Husar�.
If you have the time, stay over night somewhere. There are accommodations at
several places. Buy a smoked fish if there are not any restaurants. Check
restricted (military) areas on the map. Ticks is not a big problem, but ask
for advice if you are uncertain.
On a half-day trip from Stockholm one can go to Vaxholm. See the citadel
(open until 16.00) with gunnery museum and minute exhibition about the
Ytterby mine, known for ytterbium, yttrium, terbium, holmium, scandium,
gadolinium and lanthanum. The mine itself may be visited but is hardly worth
seeing and minerals may not be collected. Open air cafe in the citadel.
Check this URL for more info on Stockholm in the www:
<http://www.sunet.se/stockholm/>
7.4.2 Uppsala
The city of Uppsala, a major Swedish cultural center, lies about 70 km north
of Stockholm and can easily be accessed by train. Uppsala has a history
going well into the prehistoric era, it became the seat of the Swedish
archbishop in 1164 and a royal residence in the next century, although it
later lost much of its status and the king moved to Stockholm. The most
important sight is Uppsala cathedral (domkyrkan), Sweden's largest medieval
church, and a national sanctuary where e.g the king Gustav Vasa, philosopher
Emmanuel Swedenborg and the botanist Carl von Linn� (Linnaeus) are buried.
The University of Uppsala (1477) is Sweden's oldest institution of higher
learning, and it's main building Gustavianum (1623) houses a couple of
museums. Uppsala castle overlooks the city from a high hill, and beside it
is the symbol of the city, Gunillaklockan (Gunilla's clock), which is played
daily 6 a.m and 9 p.m. Uppland's museum is located in an old mill by the
river Fyris�n. Linn�'s home museum (Linn�s Hammarby) with a garden dedicated
to him are also in the city.
Gamla Uppsala (Old Uppsala), now a suburb five kilometers to the north of
the modern city, was the religious and political capital of the Sveas in the
Viking age. The three high burial mounds (kungsh�garna) from the 6th century
belong, according to tradition, to the kings Aun, Adils and Egil; finds from
their excavations are displayed in Stockholm in the Historical Museum
(Historiska Museet). In a 1164 a church was built on the site of the famous
old pagan temple of which nothing remains, as a symbol of the victory of
Christianity in Sweden -- it was the seat of the archbishop until 13th
century when a new cathedral was finished. The restaurant Odinsborg, built
in "viking style", serves mead (mj�d).
7.4.3 Malm�
Located in Sk�ne, the southern tip of Sweden, 26 km across the sea (�resund)
from Copenhagen, Malm� is Sweden's third largest city. It was chartered as a
city during the 13th century, at which time the region belonged to Denmark.
In 1658 it passed to Sweden. Originally, Malm�'s harbor was poor, and the
city served mainly as a herring market until 1775, when the port facilities
were improved. After 1800, Malm� began to develop as an industrial city.
The center of Malm� is Stortorget square, by which are located the
governor's house (Residenset, 1720), the City Hall (R�dhuset, 1546) and the
statue of Karl X Gustav, conqueror of Sk�ne. St Peter's Church (S:t Petri,
1319), with a nicely sculptured interior and a 88m high green spire is also
in the center. The castle Malm�hus was first built 1434, and rebuilt
1537-42; now it houses a museum of archaology, history, natural history and
art. The Small Square (Lilla Torg) is one of the most beautiful in the
country, with it's houses from the 17th and 18th centuries. Other sights
include the Technical Museum, Charlotte Weibull's House, the City Theatre,
the Arts Hall, and the old Market Hall. In the summer, you may want to visit
the beach Ribersborgbadet.
7.4.4 G�teborg
G�teborg (Gothenburg), founded in 1621 by Gustav II Afolf on the site of an
earlier settlement, is Sweden's second largest city and chief seaport. It
prospered during especially during the Napoleonic Wars, when G�teborg
remained open while many other European ports were under the anti-British
trade blockade. Located where the G�ta river empties into the Danish
straits, it was designed on Netherlandic fashion, with canals and bridges.
The G�ta Gota Canal built in the 19th century runs between Stockholm and
Stockholm, and is a very scenic route indeed.
In the center of the city are Gustav Adolf's square, by which the old Stock
Exchange is located. The City Hall was designed by Nicholas Tessin the
younger in 1672. The �stra Hamngatan and Kungsportavenyn streets lead to
G�taplatsen (G�ta Square), in the center of which is the statue of Poseidon
by Carl Milles; the city theatre, concert hall and art musem (Nordic, French
and Dutch art from 19th and 20th centuries) are located by the square.
Ostindiska Huset (the house of the East-Indian Company), built 1750, houses
historical, archaeological and ethnological collections. The city museum is
housed in the oldest house of the city, Kronhuset, from the year 1653.
Kronan is a fortress with a war museum. Off the city lies �lvsborgs Festning
(�vsborg Fortress), 1670, which can be accessed by boat. The old parts of
the city contain the also the cathedral (1633), Kristine Church (1648), the
law courts (1672), and the opera house (1859). There's a university (1891)
and Chalmers Technical University. The sports stadium Ullevi, with seats for
52,000 people, is Sweden's biggest; the indoors stadium Scandinavium houses
14,000. Two bridges go over the wide G�ta River, G�ta�lvbron and the newer
�lvborgsbron.
7.4.5 Gotland
Gotland is the the largest island (3,023 km�) in the Baltic Sea and has a
population of 56,383 (1989), with the town of Visby as the administrative
center. It lies 80 km off the Swedish coast and can be accessed by daily
boats from the mainland. Close to it are a couple of smalle islands, F�r�n,
Gotska Sand�n and Karls�. Gotland is a low limestone plateau with a
temperate, sunny climate. It developed rather early in prehistory etensive
trade contacts with the people of northern Europe, and had a very
distinctive culture, represented by e.g the numerous, beautiful picture
stones erected all over the island. By the 12th century Visby was an
important, independent town and a member of the Hanseatic League. The Danish
king Valdemar Atterdag brutally conquered it in 1361, and after that,
control of Gotland was disputed by several nations. Trade routes shifted,
however, and by the time Sweden gained lasting control in 1645, it had lost
much of its former importance and was impoverished.
Nowadays the island is a very popular summer destination, rich in sights
(including lots of medieval churches) and very good for a cycling holiday.
It has a beautiful, characteristic nature, and the old ring wall around the
medieval city of Visby, no doubt one of the most beautiful towns in
Scandinavia, is almost totally intact. An important event is the Medieval
Week (medeltidsveckan) arranged in Visby in August every year, with knights,
Medieval markets, etc. The Forntidssalen museum in Visby displays the
fascinating prehistory of Gotland, including picture stones and some of the
rich Viking age treasures that are constantly found in the island (metal
detectors are banned in Gotland!) Other absolute "musts" in and around
Gotland include the caves at Lummelunda, the rauk fields (peculiar limestone
formations on the coasts) and Stora Karls� (an island off the south-west of
Gotland).
7.4.6 The rest of Sweden
In the north, people appreciate the beauty of the mountain range
("fj�llv�rlden"), where you can hike, fish, pick berries, ski (in the
winter) or see the midnight sun (in the summer and far north). There are
several big national parks here.
The province of Dalarna is the "home" of the traditional Midsummer
celebrations, where people dance around the Midsummer poles in traditional
folk dresses.
J�mtland is one of the latest provinces to have been incorporated in the
Swedish realm, and remains almost half-Norwegian both in customs and
language - and a great resort for hiking and skiing.
A popular route is G�ta Kanal, on which you can go on boat from Norrk�ping
to Gothenburg and at the same time see a cross section of the mid-Sweden
country side.
Sk�ne (Scania) is the Swedish province that gives an almost Central European
impression. The landscape is very flat and much of it is farmed. You'll find
beautiful beech woods here and everywhere you see the traditional black and
white houses ('korsvirkeshus'). Many like to rent or own summer houses on
the Scanian country side. For more info on Scania, see section 7.6.
------------------------------
Subject: 7.5 Swedish literature
Swedish writing dates back to 11th-century runic inscriptions, but actual
literature originated in the Catholic Middle Ages. Saint Birgitta
(1303-1373) wrote her Revelations, which became internationally known, in
Latin. Another important work from the 14th century is the Erikskr�nikan,
which recounts historical events in poetic form. Most medieval Swedish
writings served nonliterary purposes, with the exception of the folk
ballads.
Gustav Vasa's reformation of the church contributed to a cultural decline in
the 16th century. However, of vital importance to the development of the
Swedish language were Olaus Petri's Bible translations of 1526 and 1541.
Another important 16th century work, although in Latin, was Olaus Magnus's
Historia De Gentibus Septentrionalibus (History of the Nordic Peoples,
1523). During this period there also appeared Sweden's first lyric poet,
Lars Wivallius. Another significant early poet is Georg Stiernhelm in the
1600's.
The 18th century, a period of enlightenment, was dominated by prose. Only
toward the close of the century, during the reign of Gustaf III, did other
genres emerge in the wake of French cultural influence. Noteworthy is Carl
Michael Belmman's rococo ballads. Emmanuel Swedenborg's mystical visions
influenced many authors and thinkers around Europe and prompted the
Swedenborgian religion that still exists.
Erik Johan Stagnelius's Neoplatonism, Esaias Tegner's and Erik Gustaf
Geijer's glorification of the nation's past, and Abraham Viktor Rydberg's
idealistic liberalism all reflect the philosophical orientation of Swedish
19th-century romanticism. Carl Jonas Love Almqvist, initially a mystic and
romantic, came later to herald new trends of realism in prose works
characterized by social awareness. The Finland-Swedish poet Johan Ludvig
Runeberg, with his heroic and romantic poetry, had enormous influence in the
Swedish speaking literary circles. But the most important figure of the
century was, however, August Strindberg (1849-1912), Sweden's greatest
writer and the father of modern Swedish drama and fiction. Moving in his
later plays from naturalism to dreamlike symbolism, Strindberg foreshadowed
expressionism. A novelist and playwright, he defied social convention by
writing dramas of sexual conflict and psychological torment, drawn largely
from his personal life. His plays are now esteemed as classics of the modern
stage. Important works include e.g the Red Room (R�da Rummet), Olaus Petri
and Inferno.
The socially opinionated prose writers of the 1880s were succeeded by a new
wave of romantics, who preferred verse and emphasized the past (Selma
Lagerl�f) and the countryside (Erik Axel Karlfeldt). About 1900, Hjalmar
S�derberg published exquisite short stories set in the streets of Stockholm;
but the novelists of the next decade favored small-town Sweden. Modernism
was introduced in the 1920s by the Finno-Swedish poets Edith S�dergran,
Gunnar Bj�rling, and Elmer Diktonius, and it was affirmed in P�r
Lagerqvist's innovative dramas and Gunnar Ekel�f's surrealistic poetry. A
new social class of self-educated country writers entered Sweden's literary
world in the 1930s, among them the 1974 Nobel laureates Harry Martinson and
Eyvind Johnson.
Sweden managed to avoid the world wars, but its literature from the 1940s
(Erik Lindegren, Karl Vennberg) reflects the general postwar depression. The
feeling of pessimism and guilt worsened during the following decades because
of the Vietnam War and Third World problems. An intense questioning of
literature's social function and a mistrust of language found many literary
expressions -- from "new simplicity" and "concreteness" in poetry, to
documentaries in prose, but the stories of Astrid Lindgren stand out with
their delighting humor and humanity. Swedish literature of the end of the
1970s was characterized by a new trust in the word and a new delight in
traditional fictio writing.
For electronic versions of some of the works of Nordic literature, see the
collection of Project Runeberg:
* <http://www.lysator.liu.se/runeberg/>
* <ftp://ftp.lysator.liu.se/pub/runeberg>
* gopher.lysator.liu.se ; path: /project-runeberg
------------------------------
Subject: 7.6 Scania
<This section by Malte Lewan>
7.6.1 Sk�ne and Sk�neland
Lat: Scania,
Eng: Scania,
Ger: die Schonen,
Fr: la Scanie
"Sk�ne" is old Danish/Scanian and means "the dangerous beach". It is
possibly the same word as modern "skada" / "skade" in Swedish and Danish
respectively which mean "damage".
Sk�ne is the most southern of the provinces in Sweden. Together with
Blekinge, Halland and Danish Bornholm, it has a unique history while it was
an integral part of Denmark all the years before 1658 except 1332- 1360 when
Denmark had no king and was in chaos and Scania had status as country under
the Swedish king. "Sk�neland" in Swedish or "Sk�nelandene" in Danish is a
name used for the four provinces together. In Latin and English it is
"Scania". In 1658, they all became Swedish, but Bornholm was returned to
Denmark in 1660 while the other provinces remained Swedish.
"Scania" is used for representing "Sk�neland" in the text below but not in a
strict sense. Sometimes, the meaning might be closer to the province of
Sk�ne. And Bornholm will in this use often not be included. When emphasizing
that it is only the southern province that is referred to, "Sk�ne" is used,
but when emphasizing that all provinces are referred to, "Sk�neland" will be
used.
7.6.2 Miscellaneous facts
The populations of the four provinces are today:
Sk�ne: 1 110 000
Halland: 270 000
Blekinge: 160 000
Bornholm: 50 000
The big cities in Sk�ne are
Malm�: 250 000
Lund: 90 000
Helsingborg: 110 000
Kristianstad: 70 000
Sk�ne is sometimes divided into four provinces itself (going from north west
to south east): North Western Sk�ne, G�ingebygden, Sydsl�tten and �sterlen.
The borders of these local provinces are very much disputed though. As a
rule, the historic areas were smaller than some of the uses are today.
"�sterlen" for example covers so many positive connotations of semester
paradise that the traditional borders often get transgressed when trying to
sell real estates for example!
The biggest newspaper is "Sydsvenska Dagbladet" that has its base in Malm�
but covers southwestern Sk�ne equally well. It is independently liberal. In
the same area, there are Social Democratic "Arbetet" and Centre Party
"Sk�nska Dagbladet". Several other local papers exist like for example
Helsingborgs Dagblad and Nordv�stra Sk�nes Tidningar.
The only university in Scania is Lund University. Other schools for higher
education in the same official university area of southern Sweden are
situated in V�xj�, Kalmar, Karlskrona/Ronneby, Kristianstad and Halmstad.
There are also quite big university independent schools in Malm�, and Lund
University offers some courses in Helsingborg and J�nk�ping (the later
outside Scania) as well.
There are ferries between Copenhagen and Malm�, Helsingborg-Helsing�r,
Landskrona-Tuborg (close to Copenhagen) and of course to the islands Ven and
Bornholm. There are also ferries to Germany (Travem�nde and Sa�nitz) and
Poland and sometimes to Lithuania. A few other ones exist too.
7.6.3 A few marks in history
An event that was in people's minds for a long while was that in 1612,
Gustav II Adolf's troops killed people in 24 congregations in Scania and in
the 1660's, the Scanian rebels - the "snapphanar", a well-known word even
today - were pierced and were put up and made an example of along the
Scanian country roads.
A certain sort of self-governing remained until 1720 but then was abolished.
The last time there was any fighting about the status of Scania was in 1811
in Kl�gerup outside Malm�. Peasants stood up to get rid of the Swedish
rulers but lost of course.
7.6.4 International status
Scania is a member of the national minority organization FUEV
(F�deralistische Union Europ�ischer Volksgruppen) which is located in
Flensburg, Germany. Only regions with their own language, clearly defined
border and a history to go back to, are accepted in the FUEV.
It is also a recent member of UNPO (Unrepresented Nations and Peoples
Organization). UNPO is an alternative to the UN for minorities of the world,
which are not represented in there. UNPO is located in Haag, Netherlands
where the Scanian flag now is flying.
7.6.5 The flag
The Scanian flag is red with yellow ribbons and is more square than both the
Danish and Swedish ones. The measurements are based on the old (1748-1926)
Danish measures for its flag. They are 3-1-4.5 in length and 3-1-3 in
height.
The flag is most likely (though not proved) from the archbishop in Lund
Andreas Sunesen (1201-1228) who then was archbishop for all of Norden. (But
the country diocese ("landestiftet") where the Scanian law was in force was
Sk�neland). He got the flag pattern from (and used it on) a crusade in
Latvia and a stay in Riga. The fact that the flag is like a Danish-Swedish
combination with what could have been borrowed colors from these flags is a
coincidence. The Swedish flag is younger.
The Scanian flag itself was probably pretty much forgotten (though other
yellow-red symbols existed) until Mathias and Martin Weibull "reinvented" it
around the end of the last century. First, it was used very sparingly but
the use has grown and does so even today. But only outside one of the
Scanian town halls, in Ystad, is the Scanian flag flying so far. It is more
frequently used by the common people, depending on area in Scania. The
Swedish flag is still more common in the province.
As late as in March 1992, the flag was registered in the Scandinavian Roll
of Armor. At the same time, the Scanian coat of arms was registered: a
golden panther on red background with hind legs like a lion and front legs
like an eagle. The day of the Scanian flag is the third Sunday in July.
7.6.6 Culture
Scania is associated (mostly nationally) with certain hallmarks like some
types of food: the goose, the smoked eel ("r�gad e�l") and "spettkaka"
(Swedish spelling) that is a type of cake. Other associations many have (and
also used in the tourist business) are the clogs a lot of people wear even
today and the national costumes containing a certain distinctive pale yellow
color, with the men wearing pants reaching just below the knee followed by
white socks.
Lately, the Danish red sausage, the "p�lse", has made it into the outdoor
food commerce. It was for a long time not allowed in Sweden due to the added
ingredients making the sausage red. When it finally became legal, this was
considerad a great success of the local politicians. Maybe because of the
Scanian habit of eating this sausage when visiting K�benhavn, it has now
become very popular in Scania too. In Lund there is another sausage called
"lundaknake" that has reached fame, at least locally.
The willows that edges many Scanian roads give the landscape a
characteristic outlook. Scania is like Denmark very flat and without much of
forests (in fact, this was the natural divider before 1658 between Denmark
and Sweden). The willows are supposed to shelter against the wind in an
environment where no other natural shelters exist. Also, the Scanian mills
("m�llor") are typical for the province. Often situated on hills, they too
characterize the horizon in the Scanian scenery.
Being a region containing one eighth of the population in Sweden, there
exist of course a great number of nationally famous Scanians, some of these
comedians and singers. There will not be a list here, but the maybe most
famous Scanian, the most Scanian Scanian will be mentioned. His name was
Edward Persson and was the main character and very much dominating
personality in a number of film comedies taken place on some farm in south
eastern Sk�ne, in �sterlen. He more or less established the image of the
Scanian person: fat (!), slow, content with life, felling secure and of
course having the strong accent. He's dead since some years now.
Scanians have often got a bad reputation in Sj�lland for going there to get
drunk. The background is different state policies when it comes to the
selling of alcohol. While this is harshly regulated in Sweden and only sold
in certain stores with high prices, it's cheaper and much more easily
accessible in Denmark. The result is irritation between the former fellow
countrymen.
7.6.7 Language
Many people today think that the language spoken today is a dialect of
Swedish (and there are others who disagree saying it's a language of its
own), but there are many differences that are more or less noticable
depending on the speaker. For example:
* Intonation
* Scanians use a glottal stop (st�d) though not as prominently as the
Danes.
* Pronunciation of the "r" is made by the root of the tongue in the
"French way". Like the Danes do it.
* When Swedes use t, k and p, Scanians often use d, g, and b. Like the
Danes.
* Like in Danish, t and k are pronounced very hard in beginning of words
whereas in Swedish, they are softer.
* None of the vowels are pronounced exactly in the same place of the
mouth they are in Swedish, and you could say that standard Swedish "o"
and "u" simply do not exist.
* Every long vowel in Swedish is a diphthong in Scanian. The Swedish
language lacks diphthongs entirely.
Very dialectal Scanian can be quite difficult even for Swedish speakers to
understand. There are also several examples of grammatical differences and
there are a few hundreds of local words still in use, also by young people.
Just ten examples:
hutta = throw (Sw: kasta)
klyddig = complicated (Sw: besv�rlig)
l�ssa = load, put up (Sw: lasta, l�gga upp)
m�lla = mill (Sw: kvarn)
nimm = neat (Sw: praktisk, l�tt)
p�g = boy (Sw: pojke)
r�lig = ugly, mean (Sw: ful, stygg, ot�ck)
sammedant = likewise (Sw: likadant)
titt = often (Sw: ofta)
t�j = clothes (Sw: kl�der)
There are no original ethnic minorities living in Scania but there are a few
dozens of thousand of Danes that have moved in after World War II. Some live
in Landskrona and others have houses in Northern Sk�ne. Of foreign citizens,
there are 9800 Danes, 8700 ex-Yugoslavs and 3150 Finlanders in Sk�ne. (These
are the three biggest groups.)
There are probably three things that are a salient for the Scanian
development today: membership in the European Union, the bridge over �resund
(the sea between Sj�lland and Sk�ne) to Denmark/regional cooperation with
Sj�lland and Sk�ne becoming one region politically. These things are in
contrast to much of that of history and culture openly discussed and many
times pushed forward by local Scanian politicians:
7.6.8 Membership in the European Union
In October 1995, Sweden voted a slight yes to become a member of the
European Union. In Sk�ne, the decision was very clear though. It was the
region the most favorable to membership in all of Sweden.
There is hope that Scania being a member of the EU can have positive
implications for reasons of regional strength. There is talk about a Europe
of the regions where the regions are getting more responsibility of
conducting their own affairs and acting independently. The EU will probably
to a certain degree result in the removal of administrative and political
borders to neighbouring regions in other countries surrounding Scania. That
is at least the explicit goal of the EU. In the long term, an abolition of
customs controls and a common currency are discussed. This will especially
benefit border regions.
The EU membership resulted in that Sweden needed to be divided into so
called NUTS regions. These are regions that the EU use for socio- economic
calculations, for example when determining distribution of subsidies from
the EU structural funds. Of three levels 1-3, NUTS 2 is the most important,
often called the "basic region". It's necessary that it has some sort of
political controlling unit, a council or parliament. As a result of these
demands for NUTS regions, Sweden and the EU agreed in 1995 on a division of
NUTS 2 in Sweden into 8 regions. Sk�ne and Blekinge became one. Halland was
decided to belong to another region. This EU NUTS 2 division has been made a
business separate from the _internal_ regional one described late in 7.6.9
where Sk�ne _alone_ will constitute one region). Some people are not so
happy with this that the boundaries had to be different, thereby splitting
the regional focus.
The EU subsidizes the Interreg II program that supports border regional
cooperation within the EU. For the �resund region - that is: Greater
K�benhavn and all of Sk�ne - it will cover the years 1995-1999. The sum will
be 13 million ECU for the whole project and 0.2 of these are used for a
specific cooperation between south eastern Sk�ne and Bornholm. The same
amount that the EU gives must be invested from the two states, thereby
doubling the amount of money available.
Scania is also represented in the EU Committee of Regions in which the
member states' regions have representatives. 2 of the 12 Swedish
representatives are Scanians but that is not the result of any fixed quota
granted to Sk�ne. The Committee of Regions has no decisional, but only
advisory, powers in the EU. Still, in some EU countries, regional top
politicians are members and have high hopes for the future of the
institution before the EU intergovernmental congress in that started in Mars
1996.
7.6.9 Cooperation with Sj�lland and the bridge over �resund
There is since a few years a lot of talk in all kinds of sectors in Sk�ne
public life about the prospect of a cooperative region involving Sj�lland
and Copenhagen. That's a goal every local politician seems to acknowledge
nowadays. There are for example ideas about common transportation cards, a
common TV channel, all kinds of cooperation projects in science, sports etc,
a common labor market, and there has even been spoken of common Olympic
Games in the year of 2008. Sk�ne was supposed to be a part of Copenhagen's
arrangements as cultural capital of Europe in 1996, but in the end, the
Scanian politicians decided to avoid some of its costs.
But maybe the most discussed project for better communications between
Scania and Sj�lland is the bridge over �resund:
A bridge is being built between a point just south of Malm� and the airport
of Copenhagen "Kastrup" which is the biggest airport in northern Europe. The
bridge will be 16.5 km long and will carry cars as well as trains but not
bikes. The current regional trains in Sk�ne and in Sj�lland (the island on
which Copenhagen lies) will be connected. It will take 28 min to go from
Copenhagen to Malm� and 41 min to go to Lund. The university town of
Roskilde will be on the same connection (26 min west of Copenhagen).
The bridge was planned to be finished 1999, but is not on schedule so
current predictions are mentioning the year after. It will be financed by
the car (and of course truck) traffic whose drivers will pay a few hundred
SEK for a single trip, just below the prices of today's ferries. Train
passengers will only pay the normal price of 50 SEK in today's money. The
Swedish and Danish states will act as guarantors for the project.
The bridge was debated a lot because people were worried about hurting
environmental effects. The flow of water between the Baltic Sea and the
North Sea was one of the problems since it could be altered with damaging
effects. The current solution is supposed to make sure there is no change at
all in the water transportation. Other questions raised involved the
increased car traffic and its environmental consequences.
7.6.10 A politically united region
In Sk�ne, there is a certain amount of dissatisfaction with the
centralization of a lot of cultural and administrative activities around the
capital Stockholm. For example,there has been a famous research that showed
that Stockholm gets six times higher cultural subsidies than Malm� per
inhabitant. The editorial offices of national radio and TV stations are
usually located in Stockholm which many, not only Scanians, are worried give
a particular Stockholm perspective in produced programs.
But Sweden is slowly in a process of getting a new division into regions.
For the moment there are 24 smaller administrative provinces, "l�n", whose
borders date back to the 1630's. In the future, there might be less than ten
regions. What was long discussed (not a very loud debate though) was which
areas would belong together and many different alternatives came up. Finally
it was determined that Sk�ne and Western Sweden (including the second
Swedish city G�teborg) would start out reuniting their respective l�n into
two big regions (while the other Swedish l�n not involved would be left
intact for the moment). The Scanian politicians were probably the most eager
for this project and pushed rather strongly for it. (Already in 1992, did
the main political organisations in Sk�ne submit a request to the government
for a Sk�ne political region.) In this building of regions, the other parts
of Sk�neland - Blekinge and Halland - were omitted from being part of the
new region. For now, they will continue being ordinary l�n.
So, a state official report in 1995 proposed that Sk�ne politically should
become one region and that a directly elected regional council should be
formed. The date was in a government proposition in 1996 specified to Jan 1,
1997. When this proposal will be carried through, today's two l�n councils
will disappear and be substituted by the regional council. Some of the state
administrative powers (concerning regional development) will be transferred
to the region. The Swedish parliament will make a decision concerning this
in 1996.
This report also suggested that the site of state administration would be
Kristianstad in northern Sk�ne and this soon became a heated issue where the
"capital of Sk�ne" would be. Malm� politicians were upset about making
Kristianstad the administrative site and the positions seemed to be locked.
Finally, this position was given to Malm�, a fact which of course angered
the Kristianstad politicians much and who threatened to leave the project
entirely.
Parallel to having this new common political institution, there is also
already a will from the regional politicians to coordinate and integrate
regional decision making. Many different political domains (eg
communications, economic life, education, tourism) are examined one by one
by selected teams on how to improve the way those decisions that concerns
all of Sk�ne are made. This will be made with or without the help of a
regional parliament. It seems, the theme is always one Sk�ne institution or
organisation for different activities. This is not least visible in the
names being used.
Sources: "Sk�nelands flagga", Sven-Olle R Olsson, 1993
Newspaper articles from "Sydsvenska Dagbladet", 1992-95
Brochures by SVEDAB (Svensk-Danska Brof�rbindelsen AB), 1993-94
Ett enat Sk�ne: www.skane.se, �resundskomiteens: www.orestad.com
------------------------------
Subject: 7.7 Books for learning Swedish
* Holmes, Philip and Serin, Gunilla: Colloquial Swedish, New York:
Routledge, 1990, ISBN 0-415-02803-5. Cassette available
* Beite, Ann-Mari, Englund, Gertrud, Higelin, Siv & Hildeman,
Nils-Gustav: Basic Swedish Grammar, 1963
* Hildeman, et al: Learn Swedish, Swedish Reader for Beginners, 1959
* All Almqvist & Wiksell: Practice Swedish, Exercises in the Swedish
Language, 1957
* Nyborg, Roger & Pettersson, Nils-Owe: Svenska Utifr�n, L�robok i
svenska, Svenska Institutet, 1991 ISBN 91-520-0268-3
* McClean, R.J: Teach Yourself Swedish, London, The English Universities
Press, 1947. Newer reprint available.
In French: Le suedois sans peine - svenska p� l�tt s�tt
* Part I and II, ed. ASSIMIL, 1986. Easily found in any bookshop. These
two books are a sort of small FAQ about Sverige : *sk�l*, herrings and
bier, Americans with Swedish backgrounds, etc. Two sets of cassettes
can be bought with the books.
-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- END OF PART 7 -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
� Copyright 1994-96 by Antti Lahelma and Johan Olofsson.
You are free to quote this page as long as you mention the URL for the
original archive (as: <http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/index.html>), where
the most recent version of this document can be found.
|
| 245.1 | Introduction | TLE::SAVAGE | | Tue Sep 10 1996 15:32 | 1530 |
|
-
A Frequently Answered Questions (FAQ) file for the newsgroup
S O C . C U L T U R E . N O R D I C
*** PART 1: INTRODUCTION ***
Index
1.1 An ASCII map of Scandinavia
1.2 So what's this FAQ thing anyway?
1.2.1 A notice to spaghetti publishers
1.2.2 What are FAQs?
1.2.3 Who are the net.gods and goddesses of s.c.n?
1.2.4 Why are all the names and stuff garbled?
1.3 Welcome to soc.culture.nordic!
1.3.1 What sort of a group is s.c.n?
1.3.2 What's all this flaming about?
1.3.3 Well, are there any positive things about this group?
1.3.4 Whatever you say. So, what sort of postings are o.k.
in here?
1.3.5 What about cross-posting?
1.3.6 What should I do when someone posts a flamebait?
1.3.7 I have this bridge in Stavanger that I'd like to
sell...
1.3.8 What should I know about copyright laws and the
Usenet?
1.3.9 What languages are welcome in soc.culture.nordic?
1.4 Looking for a Nordic girl-friend?
1.4.1 Contacts through the Net
1.5 Complaining to a person's postmaster;
how, when and why?
1.6 The soc.culture.nordic drinking game!
1.7 What are the related newsgrops?...
1.7.1 ... in international hierarchies?
1.7.2 ... in Nordic hierarchies?
1.8 What are the Nordic Graphemes?
1.8.1 How are these represented in Usenet postings and
E-Mail?
1.8.2 Pros and cons of the different representations.
1.8.3 How do I set up support for 7-bit ISO-646
representation?
({|}, [\])
1.8.4 How do I set up support for 8-bit ISO-8859-1
representation?
(�������..., �������������...)
1.9 About measures and figures
1.9.1 Why is it advisable to use the metric system in
s.c.n?
1.9.2 A warning about decimal commas and delimiters
1.9.3 All XXXs are YYY, ain't that so?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: 1.1 An ASCII map of Scandinavia
Well, if you can't recognise your own country/province/suburb/house on the
map (Iceland is tricky!), blame the American Standard Code for Information
Interchange, not me. :-)
+-----------------+---------------------------------------------------------+
| *** ** | |
|**** ********* | ARCTIC SEA Nordkapp |
| *****ICELAND** | //// |
| R************ | // //////////++++++ |
| ************* | / //////////////+++++++++++ |
| ******** | L// ///////////####/++++++++++++++|
+-----------------+ // ////..###///####+++++++++++++++|
| ////:::::###########+++++++++++++|
| ///.:::::::::##########++++ ++++|
| ATLANTIC SEA /////::::::::::::########++++++ |
| ////::::::::::::::#########+++++++ |
| % /////:::::::::::::: ########++++++++++++|
| F% % /////::::::::::::: ###########++++++++++|
| ///////.::::::::::: #############+++++++++|
| //////////::::::::::: ###############+++++++++|
| ///////////::::::::: #####FINLAND####+++++++++|
| Capital cities: ///NORWAY//::::::::: ###############+(Russia)+|
| //////////::::::::::. ##############+++++++++++|
| C = Copenhagen ////////O::::::::::::: ##########++++ +++++++|
| H = Helsinki /////// ::::SWEDEN:::: #A ###H +++++++++++|
| O = Oslo ///// ::::::::::S: +++++++++++++++++|
| R = Reykjavik NORTH :::::::::: + ++++++++++++++++++++++|
| S = Stockholm SEA % :::::::: .: ++ +++++(Estonia)++++++++|
| %%% ::::::: :G ++++++++++++++++++++|
| DENMARK --> %%%%% %%% ::: ++ ++++++++++++++++++++|
| Islands: %%%% %%%C BALTIC ++++++++++++++++++++++++++|
| %%% B% SEA ++++(Latvia)++++++++++++++|
| L = Lofoten Isl. ++++ +++++++++++++++++++++++++++|
| B = Bornholm +++++++ ++++++ +++++(Lithuania)+++++++++++++|
| F = Faroe Isl. ++++ ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++|
| G = Gotland ++++++++++++++++++++++++(Poland)+++++++++++++++++++++++++++|
| A = Aland +++++++++++++(Germany)+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++|
| ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++|
+---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
------------------------------
Subject: 1.2 So what's this FAQ thing anyway?
This is the so called Frequently Answered Questions (FAQ) file for the
newsgroup soc.culture.nordic. Its purpose is to introduce new readers to the
group, provide some general information about the Nordic countries (Sweden,
Finland, Norway, Denmark and Iceland) and to cover some of the topics
frequently discussed in the group.
It is organized in seven parts, this introduction and then one part each
covering Norden in general, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden.
Since the texts has grown rather extensive, these parts are posted to the
news group, and to the soc.answers and news.answers groups, with rather long
intervals. Then there are appendices. The appendices will be posted even
less often, if at all.
1.2.1 A notice to spaghetti publishers
A spaghetti publisher [n.] is one whose philosophy at publishing is to throw
it to the wall and see if it sticks. Recently, they have been busy putting
out badly written Internet books, often exploiting FAQs and other
copyrighted material available in the net. Please realize that this FAQ is:
Copyright � 1994 & 1995 by Antti Lahelma
1996 by Antti Lahelma & Johan Olofsson, all rights reserved.
It may be freely distributed in impermanent, electronic media (the networks
that form the Internet, Usenet & FidoNet), provided that the content is not
edited and the URL (or From:-header) and Last-modified-date are included.
Including it in a commercial collection or compilation (such as a CD-ROM),
or publishing it or parts of it in printed form without the expressed,
written permission of the author is illegal.
The editors, author, and contributors do not assume any responsibility for
errors or damages resulting from the use of the information contained
herein.
1.2.2 What are FAQs?
"FAQ" is an acronym for "Frequently Answered Questions". (Or Frequently
Asked Questions, some would say.) These are documents on various topics,
forming a veritable library of free information, usually put together by
voluntary enthusiasts in order to answer certain questions that constantly
come up in some newsgroup (hence the name). They are periodically posted to
their home newsgroups and (usually) to news.answers, and archived at
numerous sites, some of which were listed above. There is no guarantee of
the accuracy of the information, but usually they are reasonably reliable
because of the 'social control' of the newsgroup(s) in question. For more
information on FAQs, where they are kept, why they are written, how to write
one yourself, etc., see the "FAQ About FAQs" at
<ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/news.answers/faqs/about-faqs>.
This FAQ, like many other soc.culture.*- FAQs, isn't really a proper list of
frequently asked questions and their answers; it's more of a fact-file or an
introduction brochure than a traditional Usenet FAQ, although some Q&A:s are
included and hopefully more will be added in future. In some cases an author
is noted for a portion of this FAQ. In other cases the text is compiled from
several authors contributions in the group. Intermediate forms occur.
Of course, since unlike most soc.culture.* FAQs it -- instead of a single
country & culture -- attempts to cover five, the articles can't go very deep
or it's size will get simply too overwhelming.
S.c.n FAQ is still young (started by Antti Lahelma 24th of May 1994, the
compilation was continued spring 1996 by Johan Olofsson), pretty much just a
skeleton despite its size. It lacks much information that should be there,
some of the more irrelevant parts may get deleted, corrections will be made,
etc. It's not a finished product; FAQs aren't static. It'll get better with
time, but your (yes, your) help is required; if you have anything in mind
that could be added to the FAQ don't be shy to contact us (Antti Lahelma &
Johan Olofsson), you don't have to be a pro or expert to write something.
This is addressed especially to all you Norskies out there. :-) All
contributions, corrections and suggestions are warmly welcomed. Flames
aren't.
The latest version of the FAQ can be obtained at the world wide web at URL:
<http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/index.html>.
Other sites where the files can be obtained (however maybe not the very
newest version - and maybe slightly distorted due to the conversion back and
forth between html and normal text format?) are:
in Europe
<http://www.lib.ox.ac.uk/internet/news/faq/soc.culture.nordic.html>
<http://math-www.uio.no/faq/nordic-faq/>
<http://www.cs.ruu.nl/wais/html/na-dir/nordic-faq/.html>
<ftp://ftp.cs.ruu.nl/pub/NEWS.ANSWERS/nordic-faq/>
<ftp://ftp.uni-paderborn.de/pub/FAQ/news.answers/nordic-faq>
<ftp://ftp.sunet.se/pub/usenet/news.answers/nordic-faq>
in North America:
<http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/hypertext/faq/usenet/nordic-faq>
<ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/news.answers/nordic-faq>
<ftp://ftp.uu.net/usenet/news.answers/nordic-faq>
in Asia:
<ftp://nctuccca.edu.tw/USENET/FAQ/soc/culture/nordic>
....or by sending an e-mail request to your nearest mail-ftp service.
1.2.3 Who are the net-gods and goddesses of s.c.n?
These are some of the people who have helped and provided material for the
FAQ (parentheses mark people whos addresses have not been checked recently):
The Unofficial Asgard of Soc.Culture.Nordic
(Ahrvid Engholm <[email protected]>)
Antti Lahelma <[email protected]>
Arne Kolstad <[email protected]>
(Bodil Gram <[email protected]>)
Einar Indri�ason <[email protected]>
Gunnar Blix <[email protected]>
Gunnar Dav��sson <[email protected]>
Halld�r �rnason <[email protected]>
Hiski Haapoja <[email protected]>
Jacob Sparre Andersen <[email protected]>
Jens C Madsen <[email protected]>
Kari Yli-Kuha <[email protected]>
Kurt Swanson <[email protected]>
Lars Aronsson <[email protected]>
Lee Choquette <lchoqu%[email protected]>
(Mats Dahlgren <[email protected]>)
Mauri Haikola <[email protected]>
Malte Lewan <[email protected]>
(Nils O. Monaghan <[email protected]>)
(Palle M Pedersen <[email protected]>)
(Roger Greenwald <[email protected]>)
Ruth M. Sylte <[email protected]>
Stan Brown <[email protected]>
(Tor Slettnes <[email protected]>)
Big thanks to all of you. And apologies to anyone I may have forgotten.
Special thanks to Jens Christian Madsen for providing a lot of help with the
Danish part of the FAQ.
In reality, of course, there's only one true Goddess, but that's another
story...
A lot of URL:s get mentioned in the group from time to time. At
<http://www.ar.com/ger/soc.culture.nordic.html> you can easily find them
again.
1.2.4 Why are all the names and stuff garbled?
The Nordic alphabets contain letters that aren't in the English alphabet and
consequently may cause problems with viewing if your system hasn't been
properly set. In this document, they are typed in the ISO-8859-1
multi-lingual, 8-bit character set, also known as Latin-1, which is the most
available of the 8-bit character set, and also the standard for hypertext
HTML documents. Actually Lappish and Greenlandish need characters lacking in
this characterset, and instead Latin-6 (ISO-8859-10) would have been more
appropriate since that character set covers Danish, English, Estonian,
Faeroese, Finnish, German, Greenlandic, Icelandic, Lappish, Latvian,
Lithuanian, Norwegian and Swedish.
Here's a short guide to the most common of the letters:
letter description pronounced
-+--+- -+--+--+--- -+--+--+--
� 'a' diaeresis like the 'a' in 'hat'
� 'ae' written as a single letter like the 'a' in 'hat'
� 'o' diaeresis like the 'i' in 'bird'
� 'o' with a slash through it like the 'i' in 'bird'
� 'a' with a ring above it like the 'a' in 'claw'
� "eth"; a vertically mirrored '6' like the 'th' in 'then'
with a slash through the tail
� "thorn"; a 'p' with the vertical like the 'th' in 'thin'
line extended above the loop
There are capital letters also
==============================
� capital A-acute (�)
� capital A-ring (�)
� capital A-diaeresis (�)
� capital AE-ligature (�)
� capital eth (�)
� capital E-acute (�)
� capital I-acute (�)
� capital O-acute (�)
� capital O-slash (�)
� capital O-diaeresis (�)
� capital thorn (�)
� capital U-acute (�)
� capital Y-acute (�)
---> PLEASE NOTICE <---
If the above letters aren't displayed correctly, read the GRAPHEMES FAQ by
Tor Slettnes (included in part 1.8 of this document) on how to view them. If
your system strips the 8th bit, they may appear for example as the letters
{fedv}, which can be quite confusing, making e.g. some Nordic placenames
appear different from what they should be.
The Latin-1 character set is commonly used in soc.culture.nordic and some
other newsgroups; you will need it anyway in order to be able to properly
follow them. In future it will probably become the standard set all over the
Internet. Setting it up is no big job, and you'll be in the forefront of
progress if you do! :-) [Although the Latin-6 character set strictly
speaking would be more apporpriate since it covers also letters neccessary
for the Saami languages.]
------------------------------
Subject: 1.3 Welcome to soc.culture.nordic!
1.3.1 What sort of a group is it?
If you're interested in the Nordic countries, and don't like having your
mailbox littered up with messages from various mailing-lists, soc.culture.
nordic is probably the best choice for a discussion forum you will find in
the whole Internet. It is far from being perfect, of course; but then, few
Usenet newsgroups can be described by that particular adjective.
You may find that discussions here are not always on as profound topics as
you might have hoped for, that certain threads never really die even though
every imaginable argument has been presented already hundreds of times, that
these threads may, if they coincide, suffocate almost all other discussion
in the newsgroup.
You will find that there are hotheads who preach absurd gospels and cynics
who perceive themselves as "net vets", considering it their divine right to
flame newcomers who happen to ask the wrong questions, and that there is a
good deal of US-bashing, Sweden-bashing, Norway-bashing and Finland-bashing
(but curiously no Denmark-bashing :-), going on most of the time. If you've
believed in the "official", idealized picture of harmonious Nordic
friendship, you may be badly disappointed. We don't always act sensibly,
we're not always nice to each other, we can be tedious, nit-picky, boring,
annoying, quarrelsome, and in general quite stupid. Sometimes. But not most
of the time, I think. Read on.
One of the purposes of this FAQ is in fact to decrease the amount of flaming
and the frequency of the same old threads; if you're a newcomer, please read
through at least this part of the FAQ (the rest is up to your tastes), and
you may be able to avoid some of the most common mistakes made by new SCNers
(e.g. posting a flamy article condemning Norwegian whaling, or taking part
in the never ending arguments about the position of the Finns and their
language in Sweden. :)
1.3.2 What's all this flaming about?
Sometimes the group may seem like a battle-ground, but don't be too alarmed
by it. The Nordic countries are, in spite of everything, like a family; not
a One Big Happy Family of Nations, no, just any old family with its small
quarrels and fights. They just tend to grow out of proportion when we have
no real problems or crises to fight about. There are no great feelings of
hatred between the different nationalities, few historical traumas, our
prejudices about each other are pretty harmless, and so forth. We might have
some Big Brother or Little Brother complexes -- at least we like to accuse
each other of suffering from them -- but mostly we just like to make some
noise and get some attention. If the quarreling annoys you, don't hesitate
to use your kill-file; it's simple! (If you don't know how it's done, check
the "kill file FAQ" which used to be posted regularly to news.answers).
Don't leap into heated discussion without seeing something of how it
started. (It is common to have a second "wave" of people enter a flame war
and rehash old issues, which annoys the original participants.) Not everyone
is always saying what they mean. Some people use irony, which can be much
more obvious from reading the context, than from a single post. If you're
not sure, don't respond.
Even as it is, however, s.c.n is in fact a very calm and flame-free
newsgroup compared to many other groups in the soc.culture.* hierarchy,
parts of which, unfortunately, have deteriorated into dark pits of rampant
flamewars, hatred, and nationalism gone berserk. Among these, s.c.n is like
an oasis of peace and harmony.
1.3.3 Well, are there any positive things about this group?
Absolutely. After the possible initial shock :-), I think you will find
many. For one thing, you will no doubt find that people in s.c.n are very
helpful; post a question, and you're likely to get several long, detailed
and well thought out replies that will answer everything you asked for, and
probably also a whole lot of things you didn't ask for and weren't really
even interested in. All five nationalities are well (some more, some less)
represented by natives in this newsgroup, who have first-hand information on
everything that goes on in their countries, things that news agencies won't
tell you. There are many people who post valuable information on their own
initiative, just to serve the group. Many of them also have a www home page,
which you may want to visit.
1.3.4 Whatever you say. So, what sort of postings are o.k. in here?
Despite all our helpfulness, please keep in mind that we're not walking
encyclopaedias; you might take the trouble to check your local library
before posting a very basic question to the group. Any tourist guide will
probably answer the question "Hello, I'm coming to visit <name of country>,
what should I go and see?" better than we will, and a tourist guide won't
get annoyed with you if you happen to be the 23rd person to have asked the
same question this week. If you ask for the answers to be emailed straight
to you instead of being posted, bear in mind that the polite thing to do is
to post a summary of the replies to the group if they might be of a general
interest (of course, nothing prevents you from subscribing to the group,
posting the question, following the group for as long replies are likely to
be posted, and then unsubscribing). A quick "Hi, what's the meaning of life,
the universe and everything? --Please email all replies to someone@somesite,
thanks-and-bye" isn't going to get very a enthusiastic reception. To
increase your chances of getting replies, try to be specific; explain your
interests, and what exactly it is you would like to know.
This applies to other types of questions as well (and after all, although
questions about travelling are OK in soc.culture.nordic, this isn't a
rec.travel group; travelers might consider posting to rec.travel.europe
instead, or checking out the rec.travel archives at
<http://www.solutions.net/rec-travel/> or
<ftp://ftp.solutions.net/rec-travel>). At the very least, read through the
relevant parts of this FAQ and see if you can find an answer here. Try to
save those questions for the group to which you know you won't be able to
(easily) find an answer in the books.
But take our answers with a decent grain of salt. Most likely, we'll say
both yes, and no, and maybe, and I don't know, and buzz off, and...
When you do post, please try to keep it somehow related to Nordic matters.
Sure, the group is unmoderated, so no one can control what you write. And
it's not like you have to force the discussion on Nordic tracks if it should
digress into something else. But nevertheless, as the name of the group
implies, this is a group for discussing Nordic culture in all its forms; not
American abortion-laws, Bill Clinton or Jesus. Keep this in mind when you
start a new thread.
Please don't expect us to do your school research papers or other home-work
for you; some newbies out there might be enthusiastic enough to dig the
information for you, but most of us will just be annoyed and make fun of
you. Also, if you're looking for 'gender-based penpals', be advised that
you'll most likely become a center of amused or annoyed (depending on the
day, but it'll be embarrassing to you anyway) attention and you'll probably
be sorry that you didn't post your message to soc.penpals instead, where it
belongs. :-)
For more on this favourite s.c.n topic, see section 1.4.
1.3.5 What about cross-postings?
If only possible, avoid them. They generate threads that immediately lose
whatever connection to Nordic culture there may initially have been, and
it's very difficult (read: impossible) to get the people in other newsgroups
to remove s.c.n from their Newsgroups-lines. These threads have a life of
their own and can go on and on for months until everyone in all the involved
newsgroups is sick and tired of them, yet somehow they just keep continuing.
If you want to post your message to several groups, an intelligent thing to
do is to trim the Followup-to: header to direct replies to one group only.
The headers of your article could look like this, for instance:
Newsgroups: soc.culture.nordic,soc.culture.burma,soc.culture.kuwait
Subject: What's foobar in your language?
Followup-To: sci.lang
Remember to mention in your post that the follow-ups have been redirected so
that people will notice it (otherwise there'll always be those who don't).
If you're cross-posting to only a couple of groups, you could also consider
posting it as separate articles instead. Use your own judgment as to what's
going to be the least annoying and/or bandwidth-consuming method.
You should, of course, keep these things in mind when you post a follow-up
to cross-posted thread. The article might be in place in soc.culture.nordic,
but take a look at the Newsgroups-line anyway: does it contain newsgroups
where the thread clearly does not belong to? If yes, simply remove them. If
you feel it doesn't belong to s.c.n either, set a proper Followup-To: line
to your reply.
If you want to cross-post a request or start a new cross-posted thread read
both newsgroups for a month or two (a year would be safer ;-) before doing
so.
Don't start cross-posted threads without more justification than the subject
being "related" to both groups. You should understand the culture of both
"electronic communities".
Why this?
It is much easier to be misunderstood, misunderstand the context, and
generally get people unhappy with you if you start a cross-posted thread or
follow-up to an article posted to two newsgroups.
If you say something controversial or questionable, you can expect to get
negative responses. If you cross-post and are new to one or both groups, you
are more likely to offend someone unintentionally.
This is not recommended as a pleasant way to introduce yourself, or to get
answers to your questions.
Threads posted to many unrelated newsgroups (with the rare exception of
announcements), are often flame-baits and may deserve to be ignored.
1.3.6 What should I do when someone posts a flamebait?
If you come across a posting that is an outrageous attack on truth, decency
and everything civil, cross-posted typically to a very large number of
news-groups, congratulate yourself for having spotted a "flamebait". If you
feel enraged by the message, leave your terminal for a little while, take a
walk around the house, drink a cup of tea, and come back relaxed and calm.
It is strongly advisable that you then proceed to press 'n' or whichever key
your newsreader uses for skipping to the next article, and ignore the post
altogether, perhaps completing the procedure with a 'k' for kill-file and
imagining, with a relieved smile on your face, an audible plonk as the
cretin drops into your virtual garbage bin.
Leaving nazi trash unchallenged in normal communication or media isn't a
good idea, I agree, but this isn't normal communication nor is this a normal
media; this is the Usenet, and here the only effecient way to deal with it
is to ignore it. Trust me. Although, in some cases, if the villain does or
says something really bad, it can be better to complain to his postmaster;
for more on this, see section 1.5 below.
As a general rule, these postings are made by individuals who want to piss
you off so that as many people as possible will react, causing as annoying a
thread as possible to be generated, and the general level of confusion to
jump as high as possible. Don't think they want to discuss whatever it was
that they posted, chaos is the only goal of these kooks. If you follow-up to
their articles and flame them, you've in effect swallowed the bait and made
their day. (There exists also a less malicious variant of this sport, called
"trolling", which just adds spice to a discussion by intentional posting of
false statements in order to elicit attention by unneccessary corrections;
with it, too, you should try to remain as calm and collected as possible
lest you reveal your newbieness. For mor information about trolls and
trolling see the Usenet legends.)
And even if the person isn't a sophomoric joker but a genuine hate-monger,
don't think you can convince him to come to his senses. You might or might
not succeed in that were you to meet him face to face, but in Usenet you
won't; non-verbal signs of your anger don't travel in the bitstream and your
words, no matter how sincere, will lose their power to convince. All you'll
ever accomplish is lowering the general signal-to-noise ratio, helping a
flamewar to be born, making Usenet in general an unplesant place to be, and
perhaps generating a few mocking chuckles at some terminal somewhere.
1.3.7 I have this bridge in Stavanger that I'd like to sell.
Can I post an ad here?
Nope. As a rule of thumb, do not post any commercial ads whatsover to s.c.n.
They do not belong here, they make people very angry at you, posting them is
typically a bad breach of netiquette and could cost you your account. If
you're trying to sell something in the net, you're supposed to post your ads
to the biz.* groups or certain others such as misc.forsale, not to the
general discussion groups.
However, brief, informational (no marketing hype) and polite announcements
about services, happenings or maybe even products that have an
unquestionable connection to Nordic culture are within the range of
acceptable postings. For instance, an ad for cheap long-distance phone-calls
is not o.k., but an announcement for a Grieg Festival in Bergen or a small
ad for authentic Swedish surstr�mming now available at your neighborhood
www-mall might be. Be careful, though. Read the file "Advertising FAQ - Info
For New Users", available at
<ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/news.answers/misc-forsale-faq/posting-ads>,
before even thinking of posting an ad. You could burn your fingers. Badly.
1.3.8 What should I know about copyright laws and the Usenet?
Don't worry, you don't have to wade through law books, but there are a few
basic things it is good be aware of. First of all, all material posted to
Usenet, no matter how irrelevant or unimportant it may seem, is
automatically copyrighted unless it is unambiguously declared to be public
domain.
There does not have to be any kind of copyright notice, although a notice
does strenghten the protection a bit, nor does there have to be financial
interests involved. That the author posts it to the net (equivalent to
publishing it in a newspaper) does not mean that he or she is giving it away
for for anyone to use and exploit as they please. Most countries of the
world have signed the Berne convention on which these principles are based,
so there isn't very much variation in the legistlation from one country to
another.
There are, however, two doctrines that make possible e.g. quoting the
material in your own article, reposting it, and most of the other standard
Usenet procedures, without violating the poster's copyright: "fair use" and
"implied license". Because there are few precedents, it isn't fully clear
yet how these apply to Usenet, or if e.g. the possible implied license of
net articles extends beyond the net; obviously, these laws weren't made with
the internet in mind. But it seems obvious that if for example you wish to
publish something posted to the net in printed form, you should contact the
author first.
Posting someone's private e-mail without permission, on the other hand, is
not only immoral and a serious breach of netiquette, but is also less likely
to be acceptable as fair use, and can hardly be considered as having implied
license to publish.In addition to violating copyright, it can also get you
in legal trouble over issues such as invasion of privacy and public
defamamation. You can refer to someone's mail to you and you can summarize
the content, but you should never post it without permission.
Of course, these things are highly theoretical (at least so far) and you
shouldn't expect to have to worry much about them. But it's a good thing to
be aware of, should you e.g. make an enemy out of some notorious kook who
could attempt to harass you with legal procedure. Such things have been
known to happen. For more information e.g. on the fair use and implied
license principles, read the Copyright FAQ by Terry Carroll, (available at
<ftp://ftp.aimnet.com/pub/users/carroll/law/copyright/faq/>), or the more
compact FAQ called "10 Big Myths About Copyright Explained" by Brad
Templeton.
1.3.9 What languages are welcome in soc.culture.nordic?
English, naturally, is the most common choice, but threads in Swedish,
Danish, Norwegian, Saami, Finnish, Icelandic and Faroese are all perfectly
suitable for the newsgroup. A fact is, however, that such threads don't
appear very frequently in s.c.n. There are several reasons for this. First
of all, not all Nordic languages are mutually intelligible; while Danes,
Norwegians and Swedes could discuss with each other with only some
difficulty, many Icelanders and Finns would be left out of the discussion
(even though all Finns and Icelanders have studied one obligatory
Scandinavian language at school it doesn't mean they're necessarily fluent
in it - nor that they understand the other langauges of Scandinavia as
easily as the native speakers).
A third group of people left out of the discussion would be, of course, the
non-Nordics, who make up a large part of the readership of s.c.n. Therefore,
threads in Nordic languages don't necessarily get very many readers. Nordics
in general tend to be relatively fluent in English, so if the topic is of
general interest, using a language that restricts the readership may seem
slightly pointless. Another reason is, of course, that the soc.* hierarchy
is international; there is no shortage of national hierarchies where all
discussion takes place in the Nordic languages. There are also several
mailing-lists dedicated to Nordic topics where the discussion is often in
some Nordic language -- for details on how to subscribe to these, see the
addresses FAQ in the appendix.
It makes good sense to have at least one group act - as it were - as a
window for foreigners to peek into the Nordic countries and their cultures,
make contacts with Scandinavians and gain insight on topics that interest
us. Don't get me wrong; it isn't the purpose of s.c.n to cater to the
presumed needs of 'outsiders' -- this newsgroup isn't a zoo, thank goodness
-- but it's a function it now succesfully fulfils thanks to the common use
of English, among other, very different functions.
But if you're a Nordic student or immigrant living abroad, or if you're
studying some Nordic language, or if you're of Nordic descent and want to
practice the language -- whatever your reason is, don't hesitate to start a
thread in a Nordic language. It brings a welcome change to s.c.n, even if we
may not want all discussion to be in Nordic languages.
------------------------------
Subject: 1.4 Looking for a Nordic girl-friend?
A frequent FAQ is "How do I say 'I love you' in your language?" It's hard to
give a fulfilling answer, since pronunciation would be unfamiliar for you -
and the transcription to your language would changes depending on what
mother tongue you have.
However, we will provide you with the most basic knowledge... i.e. how these
phrases are written, so you can write it on your gifts and cakes. :-) [The
Finns claim that the written phrases are the only you need, since no one
ever would utter such words in spoken Finnish.]
Bokmaal: Jeg elsker deg
Danish: Jeg elsker dig
Finnish: Min� rakastan sinua
Icelandic: Eg elska thig
Nynorsk: Eg elskar deg
Swedish: Jag �lskar dig
(But the Finns claim that no real Finn would ever utter such words on
Finnish!)
1.4.1 Contacts through the Net
About once a week, some cretin mistakes soc.culture.nordic for a dating
service and posts a version of this actual message:
In article xxXxx.xxXX.Xxxx.it <[email protected]> writes:
> My name is DAVID and I Live in ITALY.
> I'm looking for swedish GIRL-FRIENDS.
> Let's write me!!!!!!
> I am a very interessant boy.
These type of queries, however innocent they might be, indicate faulty
assumptions about the purpose of s.c.n. and about Nordic women.
Understandably, therefore, they tend to provoke flames from s.c.n.ers. These
flames often digress into a more general sort of flaming on our usual topics
of, for example, US imperialism, Norwegian whaling or the status of Finnish
in Sweden / Swedish in Finland.
An s.c.n. Nordic woman has written the following reply to such requests. If
you have not bothered to read this FAQ entry before posting a request for
correspondence, you will most assuredly receive this, or a less polite
version thereof, in response to your posting:
Dear soc.culture.nordic Poster:
You are receiving this message because of your recent posting to s.c.n.
asking for or offering correspondence with Nordic women. It goes
without saying that your post will achieve its desired objective only
when hell freezes over. However, Hell is in Norway and regularly
freezes over - so the analogy suffers, but the sentiment remains intact.
Those of us on s.c.n. know that the natural beauty, friendliness, and
sincerity of many Nordic women attracts attention from all corners of
the world. We are also well aware that general cultural mythology,
adventuresome travelers, and Nordic cinematic efforts of the 1960s have
led many non-Nordic men to believe, among other things, that a) all
Nordic women are blonde, b) all blondes are stupid and/or c) Nordic
women of any hair color are somehow "easy", or at least "easier" than
most. These myths are not true. We can assure you that Nordic women
are quite desirable, but for *far* more reasons than *you* can imagine.
Bluntly put, Nordic women are not interested in corresponding with you
simply because you exist. You have simply "dropped in" to the s.c.n.
neighborhood to see if you can pick up chicks and your post clearly
shows your stunning ignorance on the topic of Nordic women. Note this
well: The men who have made it through the Viking gauntlet to become
regular readers and contributors to s.c.n. (whether Nordic or not) are
more than sufficiently intelligent, sincere, and funny to attract the
interest of any Nordic woman. We are *not* suffering here.
One last word. There is a popular misconception that many females
reside on this group. Don't be fooled. Nordic men are notorious for
hiding behind names that the rest of the world identifies as female -
only to pounce on ignorant boys who attempt "friendly" correspondence.
This is, of course, considered a Viking sport and a favorite form of
s.c.n. entertainment. Be forewarned...
Ruth Marie Sylte
Regular s.c.n. contributor
writing on behalf of, but not for,
the Nordic Goddesses and Gods of s.c.n.
------------------------------
Subject: 1.5 Complaining to a person's postmaster;
- how, when and why?
Even though ignoring is often the best approach to bad net-behaviour, there
are certain types of posting that warrant, or sometimes even require,
actions to be taken. This does not mean flaming the person into a crisp,
though; the best way is to mail a message to the username 'postmaster' at
the same main domain as the crook's address shows.
For example, if [email protected] posts something you strongly
disapprove of, send a polite complaint to the address [email protected],
who may or may not do something about it. Remember to include in your mail
the original article that caused you to complain and its headers so that the
postmaster can check if it really was posted from that site.
Here's an example of what your mail could look like:
To: [email protected]
Cc: [email protected]
Subject: Net-abuse from your site
Dear Sir,
Your user John Spam ([email protected]) has posted a
[insert your favourite form of net-abuse] to the newsgroup soc.
culture.nordic, an act widely recognized as a breach of netiquette.
Please warn him not to do this again, and if he has done so before,
consider removing his access to the Usenet. Thank you.
Sincerely,
Joe Netter
[the posted article follows]:
<...>
Of course, the poster's address may be forged;
if that's the case, there may not be much that you can do, except perhaps to
repost it to news.admin.net-abuse.misc, where people may be able to track it
down if there really is a need for that.
However, these actions should be left only to the worst offenders, because
postmasters have a lot of work to do and if they get loads of unwarranted
complaints they may lose their willingness to co-operate. Do not mail
complaints simply because someone has called you an airhead in the heat of
an argument. Use your common sense. Or you could go by this list of common
types of articles that warrant a complaint:
* MISPLACED ADS. See section 1.3.7 above; most ads, such as the the
infamous Green Card Lotteries and Long-distance Phonecalls, are out of
place in soc. culture.nordic. There's a struggle going on between the
established Usenet culture and certain advertisers who don't give a
dingo's kidneys about Usenet discussions, and only see the net as a
virgin marketing medium ready and waiting to be raped with junk mail.
If you want the Usenet to remain a discussion forum and not turn into a
playground for the likes of Canter & Spam, it's almost your duty as a
good netizen to react against this abuse of the net. The more people do
it, the more effective it will be in uprooting the Evil.
* MAKE MONEY FAST. There are lots of chainletters circulating the net;
the one known by this name is the most common. People are supposed to
send 5$ to the person on the top of a list of names, add their own name
on the bottom, redistribute the letter, and then suddenly receive
$50,000 some weeks later. I guess it never occurs to the people who buy
into this thing to actually ask where the money is supposed to come
from (except from gullible suckers like themselves). Anyway,
chainletters are not only a totally pointless waste of good bandwidth
but also illegal in most countries.
* SPAM. Named in reference to a classic Monty Python sketch, spam means
multiple postings of a single article. Posting a couple of copies of an
article is acceptable in some cases; with spamming, we mean hundreds if
not thousands of copies posted to almost all newsgroup of the net with
the use of a posting script. It takes a lot of net resources, costs a
lot of people large sums of money, and is very annoying to the readers.
This is an extremely bad thing to do and those who have done it, often
(but not always) to advertise some product, have experienced the hatred
of hundreds of thousands enraged netters phoning them in the middle of
the night, subscribing them to hundreds of magazines, mailbombing their
systems, overloading their fax-machines, complaining to their employers
and so forth. The least thing that happens to spammers is they will be
plugged off the Internet, but a persistent spammer may be in for the
ride of his life. Although cancel-bots such as the CancelMoose[tm]
nowadays pretty effeciently deal with most spams, it is still
recommended to mail the postmaster to convince him to remove the
spammer's net access.
* VELVEETA. Similar to spam, but instead of posting separate articles to
a lot of unrelated newsgroups, the script has been set to cross-post to
a lot of unrelated newsgroups. Takes less net-resources and is less of
an annoyance, but is nevertheless abuse of the net as they're nearly
always untopical to the newsgroups they're posted to and generate
massive threads. It's also often used as a sort of a surrogate spam by
obsessed advertisers, hoping that the cancelbots won't be able to sniff
a velveeta. Never follow-up to one of these because your article will
then show in all the newsgroups included and you'll be, as it were,
participating in the velveeta. Complaining isn't as important as with
spams, but it often makes sense if, for example, the article is not
only a velveeta but also a misplaced ad.
* FASCIST PROPAGANDA. S.c.n gets more than its share of this form of
net-abuse, probably because neo-nazi twits think "aryan" Scandinavians
are somehow more prone to buy into their ideas. It's illegal in some
countries (such as Germany), but falls under freedom of speech in
others. In the net, you should again use your judgment; if someone's
merely expressing what you perceive as fascist or racist views in a
discussion you should probably ignore it completely, or reply only in
email if you feel you must reply. Absolute freedom of speech is what
the Net is built on, and that unique tradition should be respected.
Besides, here all extremist political views fall neatly into their
place in the kooky club with the general discord, noise and weirdness,
without ever attracting the undeserved attention that makes them
potentially dangerous in traditional media. You can afford to ignore it
or simply laugh; that's how the net has been successfully dealing with
this stuff for as long as it has existed. If, however, someone's
posting neo-nazi flyers, you have a reason to complain; expressing
views is one thing, explicit propaganda another. Few sites want to be
associated with it, legal or not.
Using your voice sensibly will keep Usenet a better place to be for
everyone. Emphasis on the word "sensibly".
------------------------------
Subject: 1.6 The same procedure as last year...
[ I'm including this already classic article by Lee Choquette in the FAQ.
Posted some years ago, it has stood the test of time pretty well, which I
suppose tells something quite fundamental about the nature of this
newsgroup. ]
From: Lee Choquette <lchoqu%[email protected]>
Date: 24 Nov 92 11:58:18 MST
I got the idea for this article from one about the US presidential debates
posted in rec.humor.funny last month. I've also seen such games for several
different TV shows. Now I introduce...
THE SOC.CULTURE.NORDIC DRINKING GAME
You need a supply of your favorite drink (aquavit, koskenkorva, a glass of
vodka in a pitcher of Pommac, whatever) and a stack of articles from
soc.culture.nordic, if your local pub doesn't have Usenet. Read through the
articles, and take a drink (sip) each time one of the following conditions
is met:
1 An American asks what "canulla" means. Two drinks if a Swede responds
and can't figure out what the word is.
2 A heated argument erupts over whether Vikings had horned helmets, or
where Santa Claus lives. Take an additional drink for each week the
thread continues. The whole glass if someone draws a color-coded graph
of which Internet domains believe Vikings had horned helmets.
3 Someone complains about software that strips the eighth-bit. Two drinks
if it's not someone from Iceland.
4 Someone criticizes the Swedish king. Two drinks if s/he mentions the
Norwegian prime minister or the 1994 Winter Olympics in the same
sentence.
5 Someone relates an anecdote demonstrating the kindness and earthy
humanity of the Norwegian king or his father. Two drinks if it involves
mass transit.
6 You hear about the Danish prince who doesn't use mass transit. Two
drinks if it's a story about a new crash.
7 There's an article about Olof Palme again. Drink the whole glass if
someone actually talks about Palme's life or beliefs, not just his
death.
8 An American asks about an obscure Scandinavian band, and the
conversation somehow shifts to Vikingarna and how awful dansband music
is. Two drinks if someone confesses to having played Vikingarna on a
jukebox.
9 Jungle animals are on the loose in Finland. Two drinks if the topic
turns to alcoholism in Finland.
11 Russian submarines are detected in the Stockholm archipelago. Two
drinks if the topic turns to alcoholism in Sweden. Three drinks if it
turns to drunk tourists in Copenhagen.
12 A genealogist to the group asks about a place one of his/her ancestors
came from, and for a couple of weeks we talk about how to translate l�n
and kommun into English.
13 An American asks what this newsgroup is for, and unwittingly sparks a
flame war over the meanings of "Scandinavia" and "Skandinavien." Two
drinks if the debate is instead over whether sports comes under
culture.
19 The Great Whaling Debate resumes. Two drinks if it doesn't continue
beyond a single article.
18 Swedish-speaking Finns are referred to as aristocrats. Two drinks if a
Finland-Swede refers to his potato-farming ancestors.
17 A Finnish-speaking Finn complains about mandatory Swedish classes. Two
drinks if s/he can't write in Swedish despite the classes.
26 We face the age-old question, "Why 'Italien' and 'italienare,' or
'F�renta staterna' and 'amerikanare,' but 'Finland' and 'finl�ndare'?"
81 Finns in Sweden are portrayed as the victims of racism, ethnic
cleansing, or genocide. One drink for each of the following words or
phrases you see:
a. home language or hemspr�k (2 drinks for "skolbyr�kratisk term");
b. Forest Finns, skogsfinnar, or V�rmland (2 drinks for N�tti-Jussi);
c. Tornedal Finns (2 drinks if someone disputes that they are Finns);
d. Nazi Germany, Holocaust, or the like; or
e. Hasan B. Mutlu.
I hope I didn't offend anyone by this game. I mean it as a good-natured
(self) parody of this newsgroup.
------------------------------
Subject: 1.7 What are the related newsgroups?
1.7.1 ...in the international hierarchies?
There aren't that many. Soc.culture.nordic, as I said, is so far the only
group in the original 'Big Seven' hierarchies (news.*, rec.*, sci.*, soc.*,
misc.*, talk.* and comp.*) devoted specifically to the Nordic countries, and
there aren't any corresponding alt.* groups either. Splitting up
soc.cculture.nordic into s.c.sweden, s.c.finland, and so forth, has been
discussed from time to time but the idea hasn't received much support
because of the relatively low number of Nordic netters in general and Danish
& Icelandic netters in particular (s.c.n is a pretty medium-traffic group),
the existense of national hierarchies where Nordics can discuss the matters
of their own countries, and perhaps also the feeling of community that has
evolved in s.c.n over the years (the group has been around for at least
since the beginning of the 1990:ies; no one seems to know the exact year it
was created).
There are, however, some international newsgroups that have some connection
to Nordic issues. A scan through the lists of active major and alternative
newsgroups (posted regularly to news.lists) with global distribution
produced the following, vaguely Nordic-related groups:
soc.culture.baltics An unmoderated group on the Baltic countries
of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
soc.culture.estonia A moderated group on things Estonian.
soc.culture.europe A group on European countries in general,
but alas, probably the flamiest group in the
net right after alt.flame.
soc.genealogy.nordic Questions about your family roots should be
posted here.
rec.skiing.nordic A group devoted to that most Nordic of all
sports, cross-country skiing.
rec.travel.europe Discussions on travelling in the Nordic
countries fit in here as well.
talk.politics.european-union Politics of the European Union
nordunet.talk.skandinaviska Nordunet is the hierarchy of the Nordic
University Network. Discussion in both
English and Nordic languages (this one
is in 'skandinaviska').
alt.culture.net-viking The Norsemen of the Net.
alt.kill.the.whales A Norwegian national pastime.
alt.music.abba Bj�rn, Benny &co.
alt.music.swedish-pop ABBA and beyond.
alt.music.bjork The Icelandic singer Bj�rk and her
late band, the Sugarcubes.
alt.music.yngwie The Swedish guitar hero.
alt.politics.ec Politics of the European Union.
alt.religion.asatru Worshippers of the Old Norse deities.
alt.swedish.chef.bork.bork.bork Well...it has the word "Swedish"
in it. :) Anyway, it's a classic.
(Did I forget any? I shouldn't think so :)
1.7.2 ...in the Nordic hierarchies?
In the national hierarchies all discussion is in the Nordic languages, often
on Nordic topics. The main hierarchies (except for the Icelandic is.*
hierarchy, I've been told) can be accessed and posted to from abroad. It is,
however, up to your system administrator to decide whether or not your site
will receive them; contact him/her if you would like for your site to carry
them. If he refuses, it may be possible (although not necessarily very
convenient) to access some of them via a mailing-list to which the newsgroup
is mirrored. You can also search for a "public NNTP server" in Scandinavia
that carries these groups, and set your newsreader to use it instead of the
server your own site normally uses - in a Unix shell, this can be done with
the command
"setenv NNTPSERVER <name of server>".
When you read s.c.n, check the headers of posts coming from the Nordic
countries, see the line "NNTP-Posting-Host" or the second last domain of the
"Path" line, and try to set these as your NNTP server. Most servers only
allow their own users to access them and it can be difficult to find a
public server, especially one that allows you not just read but also post,
but with some trying or asking around you should be able to find them.
Here are some examples of newsgroups from each of the main Nordic
hierarchies (there are, of course, tens if not hundreds of groups other than
these in the hierarchies, on various topics):
swnet.diverse A group on miscellaneous topics in Swedish.
swnet.svenska Swedes talking about the Swedish language in Swedish.
swnet.filosofi Swedes philosophizing.
A full list of "swnet.*" groups can be obtained by WWW from the URL:
<http://www.dtek.chalmers.se/~d1dd/faq/>.
no.general General topics in Norwegian.
no.alt.frustjasoner Frustrated Norwegians.
dk.chat Danes chatting.
dk.general More chatter in Danish.
sfnet.keskustelu.ihmissuhteet Finns wrestling with human relations.
sfnet.huuhaa Verbal acrobatics and idle talk in Finnish.
finet.svenska.prat An alternative Finnish hierarchy; this
group, but not all of the hierarchy, is
in Swedish.
An up to date list of all groups in the sfnet.* hierarchy can be acquired by
anonymous FTP from <ftp://nic.funet.fi/pub/netinfo/gc>.
------------------------------
Subject: 1.8 What are Nordic graphemes?
(by Tor Slettnes, <[email protected]>; send comments to him)
Nordic graphemes can in this context be described as "graphical
representations of the letters that exist in the various Nordic alphabets,
beyond those that exist in the English alphabet". Each of the Nordic written
languages uses some additional letters compared to English. These are, in
order of appearance in the alphabets:
Letter: Languages used: Pronounced like:
____________________________________________________
a acute is 'ou' in 'loud'
eth is 'th' in 'there'
e acute is (dk, no, se, fi) 'ea' in 'yeah'
i acute is 'e' in 'he'
o acute is 'o' in 'home'
u acute is 'ou' in 'you'
y acute is 'e' in 'he'
thorn is 'th' in 'thumb'
ae is 'i' in 'hi'
dk, no 'a' in 'bad'
o-slash dk, no 'i' in 'bird'
a-ring dk, no, se (fi) 'o' in 'bored'
a diaeresis se, fi 'a' in 'bad'
o diaeresis se, fi, is 'i' in 'bird'
u diaeresis (se, fi, dk, no) 'ue' in french 'rue'
A set of parentheses around the country code indicates that the letter is
rarely used in the corresponding language, typically only for loan words or
names originating from another language. Other accents, such as ^
(circumflex) and accent grave are now and then used in foreign names and
words in all Nordic languages.
1.8.1 How are these represented in Usenet postings and E-mail?
The "mother" of all modern character sets for computers is the original
ASCII character set, now renamed to US-ASCII. (ASCII = "American Standard
Code for Information Interchange"). This is a 7-bit set containing the
characters needed to write American English without accents or special
letters, and little more. No 'foreign' letters are included.
Various standards exist for representing extra characters, some of which
are: Digraph, LaTeX, ISO-646, ISO-8859-1, and the IBM codepages 437, 850,
and 865. All of these sets, except the IBM codepages, are usually considered
acceptable on soc.culture.nordic, e-mail, and the internet in general.
Digraphs are two-character combinations used for simplicity, and are often
the most universally understood notation on soc .culture .nordic. However,
when using these to non-Nordics, one should be careful to explain that these
are digraphs, not two separate characters. Also, some information may get
lost by using digraphs, since a filtering program will not be able to
determine whether it is really a digraph or two separate characters.
LaTeX notation comes from the typesetting program by the same name, where a
sequence starting with '\' may be substituted with a given character. For
instance, the a-ring is written as "\aa" or "{\aa}" in LaTeX.
ISO-646 (really ISO-646-NO and ISO-646-SE) are 7-bit sets similar to
US-ASCII, but with national characters substituted in place of the following
characters: {, |, }, [, \, ]. This is the oldest one of the 'true
representation' standards mentioned here; it was used in e.g. the Nordic
versions of the CP/M operating system, prior to MS-DOS. Today, it is mostly
used in Sweden and Finland (although the ordering of the letters, for the
sake of compability with the Danish /Norwegian /German equivalents, are not
correct in these languages).
ISO-8859-1, also called ISO Latin-1, is the first of several 8-bit character
sets described in International Standards Organization's document 8859. (ISO
is the maintainer of the meter, the kilogram, etcetera.) This sets include
all characters needed for all West European languages, leave Saami and
Esperanto. Latin-1 is a superset of US-ASCII, hence all ASCII characters
maintain their original position in this set. Rather than trying to
accomodate positioning in any spesific language, the letters in ISO-8859-1
are ordered according to the alphabetical position of their US-ASCII
lookalikes. Latin-1 is supported through modern standardizations like MIME
(RFC 1521).
The IBM codepages 437, 850, 861 and 865 are used on Personal Computers in
"text" mode, and is also the default set on many MS-Windows � communication
programs. Out of the Big Blue, they were created to provide text-based PC
programs with a means to create low-cost graphics, and the addition of extra
characters came as a nice side effect. (Certain Nordic characters were not
represented in the original codepage 437, with the consequence that in
Iceland, Denmark and Norway, computers would occasionally be sold with cp
861 or 865 in the hardware. Today, alternative codepages can be downloaded
to the video card via software). The Danish /Norwegian character o-slash is
not represented in cp 437, and in 850 /861 /865 it is positioned with the
dangerous code 155 (9B hex) -- "Upper Escape". Certain terminal types will
interpret this code as the initial character of a escape command, and may
e.g. clear the screen depending on the next letter. Further, it is
incompatible with the established 8-bit standard Latin-1, and should be
avoided.
The various notations of the Nordic graphemes follow:
Letter Digraph LaTeX ISO-646 ISO-8859-1
Octal Code Char
__________________________________________________________________
a acute A', a' \'{A}, \'{a} - \301, \341 �, �
eth TH, th -- - \320, \360 �, �
e acute E', e' \'{E}, \'{e} - \311, \351 �, �
i acute I', i' \'{I}, \'{i} - \315, \355 �, �
o acute O', o' \'{O}, \'{o} - \323, \363 �, �
u acute U', u' \'{U}, \'{u} - \332, \372 �, �
y acute Y', y' \'{Y}, \'{y} - \335, \375 �, �
thorn TH, th -- - \336, \376 �, �
ae AE, ae {\AE}, {\ae} [, { \306, \346 �, �
o-slash OE, oe {\OE}, {\oe} \, | \330, \370 �, �
a-ring AA, aa {\AA}, {\aa} ], } \305, \345 �, �
a diaeresis A", a" \"{A}, \"{a} [, { \304, \344 �, �
o diaeresis O", o" \"{O}, \"{o} \, | \326, \366 �, �
1.8.2 Pros and cons of the different representations
If you have been a reader of this group for a while, you may have noticed
that discussion about characters and their representations occasionally
accounts for quite a bit of bandwidth. It often does not take more than a
question about the issue from a new reader, or someone posting an article
with an IBM character set, to get a new thread going on the issue. Some want
to keep 7-bit ISO-646 (be aware that they may call it "true ASCII", although
strictly speaking, is not), since 7-bit codes will always get though with
any setup; others want ISO-Latin-1 since it is more universal; and yet
others promote digraphs as the greatest common denominator between the two.
Some pros and cons for each set:
Character set: Advantages: Disadvantages:
__________________________________________________________________
Digraphs * Requires 7-bit only * Ambiguous
("oe" or "o-slash"?)
* Non-optimal compromise
LaTeX * Non-ambiguous 7-bit * Made for typesetting;
representation. somewhat cryptic for
regular text.
* Non-optimal compromise
ISO-646-SE, * Only 7-bit 'true' * Different standards
ISO-646-DK representation. for each language
<[\]{|}> * No data loss even * Getting harder to
with old hardware/ find font support
software/setup. (Dying out).
* Shadows the brace,
sqare bracket, pipe,
and backslash chars.
ISO Latin 1 * Utilizes all 8 bits * Requires 8-bit clean
(ISO-8859-1) in a byte; yet avoids connection; older
<�����������..> dangerous codes. systems may cause
* Universal for all data loss.
Western European * May require some
languages. setup.
* Supported by ISO and * In case of stripping,
MIME; true subset of becomes "FXEDVfxedv";
Unicode. difficult to read.
IBM CodePages * Uses all 256 codes; * Uses all 256 codes;
Machintosh set more characters incl. dangerous ones.
<Unacceptable> * Often used in PC * Incompatible with
environments such as the 'de-facto' 8-bit
BBS'es. standard ISO-8859-1
__________________________________________________________________
1.8.3 How do I set up support for 7-bit ISO-646 representation? ({|}, [\])
The ISO-646 sets are still supported via varoius fonts and translation
filters. Possible measures to set up support for them are:
* For the 'terminal' program shipped with Windows 3.x, simply select
"Denmark/Norway", "Sweden" or "Finland" from the Translations item in
the "Terminal Preferences" dialogue box.
* For MS-Kermit, use the command 'set term charcter-set language', where
'language' is one of 'Finnish', 'Swedish', or 'Norwegian'.
* For other DOS and Windows communication programs, visit its local
translation tables and insert appropriate translations for '[', '\',
']', '{', '|', '}'.
* For Unix based news readers, either find a ISO-646 font, or pipe your
newsreader through one of the following commands (Provided the font you
use is ISO-8859-1):
Denmark/Norway: tr '\\]{|}' '\330\305\346\370\345'
Sweden/Finland: tr '\\]{|}' '\326\305\344\366\345'
For instance, in your .cshrc file, insert the following line:
alias rn "rn | tr '\\]{|}' '\330\305\346\370\345'"
The character '[' should not be translated, because it is used in ANSI
escape sequences.
Note that if you use this kind of translation, you will no longer see any of
the characters '\]{|}'; in most cases this outweighs the benefits from
seeing the national letters.
1.8.4 How do I set up support for 8-bit ISO-8859-1 representation? (���,
�����)
The ISO-8859-1 (Latin 1) set is currently the most common character
representation standard on soc.culture.nordic, and is also quite frequent in
e.g. soc.culture.german, personal e-mail etc. However, on many systems, the
ability to view these characters is not provided as 'default', so you may
need to configure some things on your own.
* If you are reading news through a modem, you need to make sure that
your modem connection is 8 data bits. (The most common parameters are
"8N1" - 8 data bits, no parity bits, and one stop bit).
* For DOS text mode communication programs, you need a ISO->IBM
translation table. Tables for Telemate, Telix and Procomm Plus can be
found in the file 'xlate.zip', available at various FTP sites.
* For MS Windows � communication programs, select an ANSI or ISO-Latin-1
font. For MS-Kermit, use 'set term char latin'. For Procomm Plus for
Windows, select vt220 or vt320 emulation. Be sure that bit 8 is not
stripped.
* For MS Windows � you can also generate 8-bit characters globally by
choosing "US-International" keyboard layout via the "International"
dialogue box in the Control Panel. For instance, '�' (a diaeresis) is
generated by pressing "a, i.e. double quote followed by lowercase a.
A note to Windows programmers: Let the underlying keyboard drivers,
run-time libararies etc. take care of keyboard input. Only be sure that
the 8th bit is not stripped/masked away.
* If your newsreader is UNIX-based, insert the following command in your
.login or .profile file:
stty -istrip pass8
* If your modem connection is 7 bits (and cannot be changed to 8 bits),
you can have ISO-Latin-1 characters translated to "[\]{|}" before they
are sent over the modem. Pipe your reader through the 'tr' command,
similar to above:
tr '\306\330\305\304\326\346\370\345\344\366' '[\\][\\{|}{|'
* If you use the 'emacs' editor, version 19.x, and have a ISO-Latin-1
display font, insert the following line in your .emacs file:
(standard-display-european t)
Also, if you have a keyboard with international characters that you
want to be able to use directly, or if you in another way are able to
generate 8-bit codes directly from your keyboard, insert the following
line:
(set-input-mode (car (current-input-mode))
(nth 1 (current-input-mode))
0)
Note that in cases where the Meta key is represented by setting the 8th
(high) bit, (ie. if you are not using X-windows), this line will
disable the Meta key, so you will subsequently have to use 'ESC x' to
generate 'M-x'.
Otherwise, insert the following line:
(load-library "iso-insert")
A new keymap, 8859-1, has now been assigned to the key sequence "C-x
8". You can assign this to another sequence, e.g. C-t, by inserting:
(global-set-key "\C-t" 8859-1-map)
Some strokes from this map:
C-x 8 d gives � (eth)
C-x 8 t gives � (thorn)
C-x 8 a e gives � (ae)
C-x 8 / o gives � (o-slash)
C-x 8 a a gives � (a-ring)
C-x 8 " a gives � (a diaeresis)
C-x 8 " o gives � (o diaeresis)
C-x 8 ' a gives � (a acute)
C-x 8 ' i gives � (i acute)
1.8.5 References
For an index to other literature on internationalization, try:
<http://www.vlsivie.tuwien.ac.at/mike/i18n.html>
I am: Tor Slettnes <[email protected]>.
------------------------------
Subject: 1.9 About measures and figures
1.9.1 Why is it advisable to use the metric system in s.c.n?
Because you'll get flamed if you don't, that's why. :-> The obscure
Anglo-Saxon units of measurement are a pet peeve of certain s.c.n regulars,
known as net.metric-cops, who are very much committed to the cause of
converting Yanks to the SI units. But it's really just a question of common
courtesy. This is Nordic territory; we might be speaking English most of the
time, but there's a limit to the extent we're willing to accommodate the
American netters. :-) And seriously, many Nordics simply won't have an idea
of what you're talking about if you use feet, yards, fahrenheits, inches,
gallons, pounds or miles. If you don't know how to convert these to the
metric system, it's about time to wake up to the 20th century and learn.
Here are the tables:
Linear measure
--------------
Primitive system Metric system
**************** *************
1 inch = 2.54 centimeters (cm) 1 cm = 0.3937 inch
1 foot = 30.48 centimeters 1 m = 39.37 inches, or
1 yard = 0.9144 meter (m) 3.2808 feet, or
1 mile = 1.6093 kilometers (km) 1.0936 yards.
1 km = 3280.8 feet, or
1093.6 yards, or
0.62137 miles.
Liquid measure
--------------
1 U.S fluid ounce = 29.573 milliliters (ml) 1 ml = 0.033814 fl.oz.
1 U.S quart = 9.4635 deciliters (dl), or 1 dl = 3.3814 fl.oz.
0.94635 liters (l) 1 l = 33.814 fl oz., or
1 U.S gallon = 3.7854 liters 1.0567 quarts, or
1 U.S pint = 0.4732 liters 0.26417 gallons
1 U.S pint = 0.4732 liters 1 l = 2.1134 U.S pints
Area
----
1 sq foot = 0.0929 sq meters (m�) 1 m� = 10.764 sq feet
1 sq yard = 0.83613 sq meters (m�) 1 m� = 1.1960 sq yards
1 acre = 0.4046 hectare (ha) 1 ha = 2.471 acres
1 sq mile = 2.5900 sq kilometers (km�) 1 km� = 0.38610 sq miles
Mass
----
1 ounce = 28.350 grams (g) 1 g = 0.03527 ounces
1 pound = 0.45359 kilograms (kg) 1 kg = 2.2046 pounds
1 short ton = 0.90718 metric ton 1 metric ton = 0.98421 long tons, or
1 long ton = 1.0160 metric tons 1.1023 short tons, or
1,000 kg
Temperature
-----------
The Celsius ("centigrade") scale, named after the Swedish astronomer Anders
Celsius (1701-44), is based on the freezing and boiling points of water --
0�C and 100�C, respectively. The Fahrenheit scale, on the other hand, is
based on what Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit (1686-1736) considered to be the
temperature of the human body (100�F; in reality it should be around 98.6�F)
and the lowest temperature he could achieve (0�F) by mixing salt, water and
ice. Converting between the two can be done by the following formulas:
�C = (�F-32)/1.8
�F = 32+(1.8*�C)
Or, for practical purposes, a bit simplified formulas can be used:
To get Fahrenheit out of Celsius: double the Celsius, subtract 10%,
and add thirty-two.
To get Celsius out of Fahrenheit: subtract thirty-two, add 10%, and
divide by two.
Or if this is still too complicated, you could learn by heart parts of the
following tables:
Fahrenheit --> Celsius Celsius --> Fahrenheit
-40�F = -40�C
/ \
_________/ \_________
| |
v v
-10�F = -23�C -10�C = 14�F
0�F = -18�C 0�C = 32�F
10�F = -12�C 10�C = 50�F
20�F = -7�C 20�C = 68�F
30�F = -1�C 30�C = 86�F
40�F = 4�C 40�C = 104�F
50�F = 10�C 50�C = 122�F
60�F = 16�C 60�C = 140�F
70�F = 21�C 70�C = 158�F
80�F = 27�C 80�C = 176�F
90�F = 32�C 90�C = 194�F
100�F = 38�C 100�C = 212�F
In the scales, 1 degree C corresponds to 1.8 degrees F,
1 degree F corresponds to 0.56 degrees C.
You'd better learn all this now, because later on there might be a quiz. :->
1.9.2 A warning about decimal commas and delimiters
Although most writers in s.c.n. ought to know the English usage of decimal
points and commas in big figures, you must be observant. The usage in
Scandinavia, in Germany and in France is the opposite, and mistakes are
common.
Recently it has become usual to mark thousands and millions by a single and
a double apostrophe, like this: 1'200 for one thousand two hundreds, or
5"600'000 for five millions six hundred thousands. Sometimes you can also
see an abbreviated form, 1'2 or 5"6, and you have to be prepared that the
foot and inch signs might have other usages.
Finally, it's hopefully unnecessary to stress the difference between the
American billion (a French, German or Scandinavian milliard) and the
European billion (which is a million millions).
1.9.3 All XXXs are YYY, ain't that so?
Probably not. Never trust the net for drawing conclusions about groups of
people, especially whole nations. You'll always get it wrong. I wouldn't
want to preach, but some people need to be reminded. We're not statistically
representative of the population layers of our countries, and most of us
don't even attempt to represent anyone but our own, eccentric selves. A few
colourful kooks with no life outside the net always outshine the silent,
lurking masses. Don't fall into thinking "Gosh, those XXXs sure are a mighty
weird/fanatic/stupid bunch of people." Treat us as individuals, and you'll
have a better chance of being treated as an individual yourself.
All this being said: welcome to soc.culture.nordic! I hope you enjoy the
group!
-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- END OF PART 1 -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
� Copyright 1994-96 by Antti Lahelma and Johan Olofsson.
You are free to quote this page as long as you mention the URL for the
original archive (as: <http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/index.html>), where
the most recent version of this document can be found.
|
| 245.2 | Norden in general | TLE::SAVAGE | | Tue Sep 10 1996 15:38 | 1978 |
|
-
A Frequently Answered Questions (FAQ) file for the newsgroup
S O C . C U L T U R E . N O R D I C
*** PART 2: NORDEN ***
Index
2.1 How does one define "Scandinavia" and "Nordic
Countries"?
2.1.1 Background
2.1.2 What is "Nordic"?
2.1.3 What is "Scandinavia"?
2.2 What makes the Nordic countries a unity?
2.2.1 History
2.2.2 Political history & co-operation
2.2.3 Culture
2.2.4 Religion
2.2.5 Geography
2.2.6 Language
2.3 Who are the Sami (or Lapps)?
2.3.1 Who they are?
2.3.2 Sami history
2.3.3 Sami cultures
2.3.4 Sami religion
2.3.5 Sami languages
2.3.6 The Sami as citizens
2.3.7 The Sami today
2.3.8 SANA - The North American Sami Association
2.3.9 @ The Sami in Internet
2.4 What do we know about Scandinavian mythology?
2.4.1 Short introduction to the sources
2.4.2 The World Tree Yggdrasill
2.4.3 The Creation of the world
2.4.4 Asgard, the realm of the Gods
2.4.5 The Gods
2.4.6 The Goddesses
2.5 @ The Vikings (What about those horns in Viking
helmets?)
2.6 The essence of Nordishness
2.6.1 What is Janteloven (the Jante Law)?
2.6.2 A Nordic national character?
2.7 @ Sex, drugs and censorship
2.7.3 Pornography
2.7.4 Censorship in the Nordic countries
2.7.5 Drugs in the Nordic countries
2.8 Nordic socialism and welfare
2.8.1 Wouldn't the Nordic economies gain from abolishing
the Socialism?
2.8.2 Don't the Nordic states have huge welfare
expenditures?
2.8.3 But you do pay terrible taxes, don't you?
2.8.4 Now, when the Soviet Union has fallen...
2.8.5 What are the differences of the economies?
2.9 @ Valborg, Midsummer and other festivals
2.9.1 @ Valborg
2.9.2 @ Midsummer
2.9.3 ! Lucia
2.9.4 ! Christmas
2.10 Nordic alcohol customs
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: 2.1 How does one define "Scandinavia" and "Nordic Countries"?
2.1.1 Background
It may seem a bit silly, but this is actually a topic that every now and
then causes rather heated discussions in s.c.n. So I'm going to be pretty
thorough here.
The Roman historian Pliny the Elder mentions in 67 CE an island called
"Scadinauia" in the sea at the edge of the world, north of Germania. This,
as it dawned much later to the civilized world, was in fact no island but
the southern tip of Sweden, the province of Scania (Sk�ne). The name is
thought to be related to the word "skada", or "damage" that could be done to
ships by the sand reefs outside southwestern Sweden. The "-avia" ending, on
the other hand, probably comes from a word meaning "island", cf. modern
Norwegian "�ya". Thus the original definition of the word "Scandinavia" was
purely geographical: it referred to the Scandinavian peninsula -- modern
Sweden and Norway.
Later, as people became more conscious of their culture, formed political
unions, colonized previously uninhabited areas and conquered the land of
their neighbours, the definition of the word started to stretch.
"Scandinavia" became more a political and cultural concept than a geographic
one. And since cultural boundaries tend to be less clearly definable than
geographic ones, and political boundaries on the other hand move around
quite a bit, the current use of the word is a bit of a mess.
2.1.2 What is "Nordic"?
Another term used of the countries covered by this FAQ is, of course,
"Nordic countries", coming originally from French ("Pays Nordiques"). It was
at first used of "northern" (European) countries in general, but with the
common political, economic and cultural development of Sweden, Denmark,
Norway, Finland and Iceland, the term has in English widely become
established as referring exclusively to said five countries (still, not
everyone agrees; you may, for instance, find Canadians who are under the
misconception that *they* are Nordic :-> . Some examples from dictionaries:
[Webster's Third New International Dictionary]
NORDIC
4. of or relating to Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland and Finland.
[Oxford Reference Dictionary]
NORDIC
2. of Scandinavia, Finland or Iceland.
In the Nordic languages, one has the term NORDEN ("Pohjola" or "Pohjoismaat"
in Finnish) which is commonly used of the five Nordic countries. Some have
tried to implant this term into English, but without much success so far. It
does, however, occur every now and then in this newsgroup.
The "Nordic race" is a topic which now and then get brought to the groups
attention. Mostly by people living abroad. Usually the Nordic participants
in the discussion produce disappointment on the other side, by stating that
we consider the typical nordic look as un-exotic and un-sexy.
2.1.3 What is "Scandinavia"?
The word "Scandinavia" presents a bit more difficulty. In Nordic languages,
the meaning is quite clear:
Skandinavien: Sweden, Denmark, Norway (and sometimes Iceland)
-- the ancient lands of the Norsemen.
The Scandinavian peninsula, on the other hand, is usually simply understood
as comprising Norway and Sweden, despite the unclear border to the Kola
peninsula. The northernmost part of Finland is of course also situated on
the Scandinavian peninsula.
But in English, alas, there seems to be no standard usage. This is mainly
due to the fact that English lacks a simple and clear term for the five
countries, and the word "Scandinavia" tends to be used for that purpose
instead. The term "Nordic countries", in its current definition, is a rather
recent invention, its meaning is still a bit obscure especially to
non-Europeans, it's awkward to use and to some people it carries unpleasant
connotations of the Aryan "Nordic race". Therefore, you will find that it's
quite common to define the word "Scandinavia" in English like this:
[Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English]
SCANDINAVIAN
1. of the countries Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Iceland
in northern Europe, or their people or languages.
On the other hand, it is not uncommon to use the word "Scandinavia" in its
more limited definition. An example:
[The Concise Oxford Dictionary]
SCANDINAVIAN
1. a native or inhabitant of Scandinavia
(Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Iceland).
And some encyclopaedias put it like this:
[The Random House Encyclopaedia]
SCANDINAVIA
1. region of northern Europe consisting of
the kingdoms of Sweden, Norway and Denmark;
culturally and historically Finland and Iceland
are often considered part of this area.
Despite the term being rather clear for the Scandinavians themselves,
disputes remain about how the term would be understood and derived in
English. If the word is understood as a geographic term, how can then
Denmark be included - as most do. If instead it's deduced from the area
where the languages are quite similar North-Germanians, should Iceland
logically be excluded?
At the risk of disturbing some people's sleep, we will use "Nordic" and
"Scandinavian" interchangeably throughout this FAQ, for practical reasons.
You have been warned. :->
In addition, it should be noted that after the fall of the Soviet Union,
Latvia and especially Estonia have expressed a wish for extensive
co-operation with the Nordic countries, emphasizing their many historical
and cultural ties with Norden. If the Nordic Council manages to justify its
existence even as Finland and Sweden have joined the EU (some politicians in
the Nordic countries have questioned the importance of the NC in the current
political situation), we may yet see Estonia and Latvia joining the NC.
------------------------------
Subject: 2.2 What makes Nordic countries a unity?
2.2.1 History
From the Viking age onwards, the Nordics have fought each other, formed
unions with each other and ruled over each other. Sweden ruled over Finland
for over 600 years, Denmark ruled over southern Sweden also for over 600
years (or, alternatively, Sweden has ruled over northern Denmark for the
past 300 years) and over Norway for nearly 500 years, while Norway ruled
over Iceland for some 200 years and Denmark yet another 500 years, and the
list goes on (but Finland hasn't ruled over anybody, and is very envious
because of that :-> . Unavoidably, this has caused some anti-pathies, but it
has also made the Nordic cultures more uniform.
2.2.2 Political history & co-operation
The forming of what we today know as Nordic countries is a rather complex
historical process. This is also the reason why it's not a very tight unit.
While the common cultural heritage and even political unions of the Nordic
peoples go well beyond the renaissance, a conscious supra-national identity
is a relatively recent development. After the splitting up of the Kalmar
Union in early 16th century, Sweden-Finland and Denmark-Norway remained
arch-enemies for almost three hundred years, fighting each other for the
dominance of Scandinavia; political co-operation was for the most part out
of the question.
In the learned circles of the late 18th century, however, a movement known
as Scandinavism started to spread with the growing realization of national
identity on one hand and common cultural heritage on the other hand. At
first this was limited to promoting cultural exchange, but in the 1830s a
political Scandinavism was born among the students of Sweden and Denmark; it
aimed to create a Nordic defence alliance and even to unite the countries as
a single state.
King Oskar I of Sweden, who was an enthusiastic Scandinavist, supported
Denmark when the country was subjected to strong political pressure from
Prussia in 1848-49, which increased the popularity of Scandinavism in
Denmark. During the Crimean War of 1853-56 efforts were made to get Finns to
embrace Scandinavism and Sweden planned to liberate Finland from the yoke of
the Russian Empire so that it could join the Scandinavian family, but at
that time Finns were quite content with their autonomy and didn't show much
enthusiasm for Scandinavism.
Political Scandinavism collapsed by and large in 1864 when Denmark was
attacked by Prussia and Austria. Although the reigning Swedish king Karl XV
was an advocate of Scandinavism, the Riksdag (parliament) which had grown in
power had a more sceptical attitude, and decided not to send any troops to
aid the Danes. In addition to this, the Norwegian independence movement
started to cause tension between Norwegians and Swedes. Thus the dreams of a
unified Scandinavia were abandoned, and Scandinavism came to be focused on
cultural and economic co-operation, standardizing legislation and acting
together in international conferences. This co-operation has continued up to
this date, although the word "Scandinavism" itself is no longer used. The
main Nordic cultural and political organs are the Norden-societies in each
country (founded in Swe/No/De in 1919, in Iceland in 1922, Finland 1924,
Faroes 1955, �land 1970), their umbrella organization founded in 1965, the
Nordic Minister Council (1971), and most importantly the Nordic Council
(1953), through which free movement of labour, passport-free travel and
common legistlation have been introduced in the Nordic countries. A similar
political profile has led all the Nordic countries to develop into welfare
states with a high social security and standard of living.
Behind the political co-operation lie the factors that have enabled it in
the first place. These include common cultural background, linguistic
relationship, shared history, religion and geography. With the exception of
religion, none of them is fully shared by all five countries, but even so,
there are more things that unite us than ones that separate us. Here's a
short look at each of the categories:
2.2.3 Culture
Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Iceland shared a more or less homogenous
"Viking" culture in the Viking Age (800-~1050 CE), and Finland, while not
strictly speaking a "Viking" country, did have a "Viking age" and a culture
very close to its western neighbours, and at the close of Viking age was
united into the Swedish kingdom. Scandinavian culture today could be
described as a potpourri of this "original" culture, medieval German
influence, French influence in the centuries that followed, and several
other smaller sources, not forgetting local development and national
romantic inventiveness, of course.
A significant factor is also the fact that the Nordic countries never had an
era of feudalism to speak of; personal freedom is highly valued here. One of
the expressions of this freedom is the Allemansret / Allemansr�tt
("Everymans right") in Norway, Sweden and Finland, giving all residents free
access to the forests, seas and uncultivated land.
The Nordics are rather heavy drinkers, the "vodkabelt" goes right through
Finland, Sweden and Norway; the Danes are more of a beer-drinking nation,
but don't say no to a glass of akvavit either. Sm�rg�sbord with pickled
herrings and open-faced sandwiches is no rare sight. Women are emancipated.
Towns are clean and well-functioning enough to make a Swiss clocksmith feel
at home. And so forth; myths and stereotypes about Scandinavia are many.
Some them are, of course, less true than others, but their very existence
illustrates the fact that we do have quite a lot in common.
2.2.4 Religion
The Germanic pagan religion has left its mark on customs and festivals;
celebrations with bonfires and maypoles mark the Finnish and Swedish
midsummer, and the Nordic Christmas bears many similarities to the midwinter
feast of the Vikings, starting with the word for Christmas (sw. Jul, fin.
Joulu) which comes from the Old Germanic word "hjul", meaning the wheel of
the year. Trolls and gnomes still inhabit Nordic households, although the
once revered and feared mythical beings have been reduced to the lowly caste
of soft toys.
The Nordic peoples were converted to Catholicism in the 10th to 12th
centuries, but the Lutheran reformation embraced in all Nordic countries
wiped out most of the Catholic customs and memories in the course of the
16th century. Having become a stronghold of protestantism against Catholics
in the south and Greek Orthodox in the east had some unifying effect on
Scandinavia even though wars between the countries kept raging on; religion
was, after all, the most important basis of one's identity well into the
18th century. The Lutheran ideal was to require the common people to be able
to read the Bible on their own, which had a enormous educating effect on the
Nordic peoples. This, along with the protestant work ethic, had a
significant role in the forming of the Scandinavian societies, enabling
their economic and cultural growth and the pioneering work that the Nordics
have played in decreasing social inequality. No doubt it also shaped the
national character of each country to a similar direction (a common
complaint in Norden: we're such joyless, grey and angst-ridden people --->
it's all the Lutheran Church's fault! :->
Even today, all five Nordic countries have a Lutheran state church to which
a vast majority of the population belongs (there is of course full freedom
of religion granted by the constitutions of the five countries).
Paradoxically, this is probably the reason why Scandinavians are among the
most secular peoples on the face of the earth. Despite its seemingly
all-pervasive presence in various state institutions and the ceremonies
guiding the life of the average Scandinavian, Lutheranism has in most parts
of Scandinavia retreated to the fringes of culture and has little meaning to
the average person. Church attendance is record-low, the liberal morals
hardly reflect specifically Lutheran ideals, religion is no major issue in
politics, etc. The official, institutionalized religion offered by the state
churches has to a large extent vaccinated the Nordics against Christian
fundamentalism of the American kind.
2.2.5 Geography
Norway, Sweden and northern Finland form the Scandinavian peninsula more
than 2'000 kilometers from south to north. Denmark is a peninsula stretching
out from continental Europe, accompanied with an archipelago of large and
small islands, while Iceland is situated in the middle of the Atlantic
Ocean. Except for Iceland, the countries are situated relatively close to
each other, often sharing borders with one another. They do not really form
a geographical unit, but this is rather irrelevant since seas and waterways
have historically, instead of separating peoples, united them. And we are,
after all, talking about the best seafarers of ancient Europe.
Finland, Sweden and Norway receive many tourists camping outdoors and hiking
in the (relatively) unpolluted wilderness, taking advantage of the
"Allemansret" (the General Right of Public Access) - the ancient right to
move over land and waters of others, and to pick berries, and mushrooms, as
long as one doesn't disturb and doesn't cause harm. Some tourists even
travel by bicycle.
Since the kingdom of Denmark includes also the autonomous areas of Greenland
(area: 2.2 mill. km�, pop. 53,000) the area which strictly spoken should be
regarded as "Norden" is huge.
2.2.6 Language
Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic and Faroese are all North-Germanic
languages developed from the Old Norse spoken in Viking age Scandinavia.
(Also English is classified as a Germanic language.) A Swede, a Dane and a
Norwegian can understand each other with varying degrees of difficulties,
but none of them will fully understand Icelandic or Faroese without studying
the languages. Finnish is an entirely different case, it's a Finno-Ugric
language related to Estonian and Hungarian. There is, however, a
Swedish-speaking minority in Finland, which ties it linguistically to
Scandinavia. Also, Finnish is related to the Saami languages spoken in
Norway, Sweden and Finland by the Saami or Lapps, the aborigines of northern
Scandinavia.
Are linguistical definitions of any value?
Maybe not, but nevertheless they show up now and then in the group.
An example:
Dr. R. Rautiu <[email protected]> writes:
Modern Germanists are dividing the North-West Germanic branch in a
1. Continental branch comprising: Swedish, Danish, Bokmal (Norwegian)
2. Insular branch comprising: Icelandic, Faeroese and sometimes Nynorsk
(closer to insular than continental linguistic traits), some
specialists put Nynorsk as a transitional language between the
continental and the insular groups.
Tor Arntsen <[email protected]> replies:
About trying to group Nynorsk and Bokm�l to different East/West Nordic
groups: It's really a red herring as Nynorsk and Bokm�l exist as written
languages only. No one actually speaks Nynorsk for example. The same goes
for Bokm�l.
Some dialects would be "closer" to either one or the other, depending on
what you end up with if you try to create a "written" form of a dialect.
Norwegian language has as many dialects as there are cities and villages and
valleys and fjords, and there is no way to create a common written language
from that. Bokm�l and Nynorsk are just two constructed written languages,
where Bokm�l is something that once upon a time came from written Danish,
and Nynorsk was constructed from south-west Norvegian dialects -- and some
personal colouring from the constructor (cultural and political).
Eugene Holman writes:
The majority of the traditional inhabitants of Iceland, the Faroe Islands,
Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and some regions of western Finland speak closely
related Germanic languages belonging to the North Germanic (= Scandinavian =
Nordic) subgroup. North Germanic is a subgrouping within Germanic (formerly
called Teutonic). Thus English, German, Yiddish, Dutch, Afrikaans, Frisian,
Lezebuurjesh, and the now extinct Anglo-Saxon, Middle English, Old High
German, Gothic, Burgundian, Vandal, Longobardian, etc. are all Germanic or
Teutonic languages ( - but they are not Nordic languages).
The late Einar Haugen, one of the leading authorities on the Scandinavian
languages, once characterized Norwegian as "Danish spoken with a Swedish
accent". The essential difference between the three Scandinavian languages
is that Danish and (Bokm�l) Norwegian have a long history of shared culture
and vocabulary which Swedish lacks, while Norwegian and Swedish have many
shared features of pronunciation, which Danish lacks. Actually, the truth is
somewhat more complex, since Norwegian and Danish have radically simplified
their pronunciation and grammar in a way that Swedish has not, but the
pronunciation of Danish has subsequently been influenced by that of German,
while Swedish and Norwegian have not.
------------------------------
Subject: 2.3 Who are the Sami (or Lapps)?
(This section by Kari Yli-Kuha)
(being revised - last edited 96/05/19)
2.3.1 Who they are
The Sami people are one of the aboriginal peoples of the Fennoscandian area,
(meaning here: Scandinavia, Finland, eastern Karelia and Kola peninsula) and
for long they lived more or less disconnected from the European
civilization.
They are often referred to as Lapps but they themselves prefer to be called
Sami (Saamelaiset/Samerna) because S�pmi is the name they use of themselves
and their country. I use the terms Lapp/Sami interchangeably without any
intention to hurt the Sami's feelings.
The Sami languages (there are several of them) are Finno-Ugric languages and
the closest relatives to the Baltic-Finnic languages (Finnish, Estonian).
Sami people live nowadays in an area which spreads from J�mtlands L�n in
Sweden through northern Norway and Finland to the Kola Peninsula in Russia.
2.3.2 Sami history
The origins of Sami people have been researched for long but no certain
answer has yet been found. Anthropologically there are two types of Sami
people, the eastern type which resembles northern Asian peoples, and the
western which is closer to Europids. Blood survey, especially in this
century, indicates western rather than eastern heritage. The long isolation
from other cultures may explain that some rare features in genetic
inheritance have accumulated and that Sami are very original people, not
only compared to other cultures but also internally.
It is believed that the original Sami people came to areas now known as
Finland and eastern Karelia during and after the last ice age, following
herds of reindeer. Prehistoric (some 4000 years old) ski findings by the
Arctic Sea show that there was some sort of Sami culture living there
already at that time. Some 1500 rock paintings have been found in the areas
where they lived, e.g. by lake Onega and in Kola peninsula; the easternmost
of them are 3000 years old.
Some archeologists have linked the oldest known Scandinavian stone age
culture, so-called Komsa culture by the Arctic Sea, to the ancestors of the
Sami. Historians also now note that Ghengis Khan had written that the S�mi
(or, Fenner as they were then called), were the one nation he would never
try to fight again. The S�mi were not warriors in the conventional sense.
They simply didn't believe in war and so they 'disappeared' in times of
conflict. The S�mi remain one culture that has never been to war but are
known as "peaceful retreaters" adapting to changing living conditions,
whether they were caused by nature or by other people.
Anyway, it is known that the Sami people are the original people in the
Fennoscandia area. Many names even in southern Finland and central Sweden
are of Sami origin. There was Sami population in those areas as late as the
sixteenth century. The Sami are known to have fished and hunted seals on the
west coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, but in the late Middle Ages the Swedish
agricultural population "invaded" the coastal area, pushing the Sami further
north. The same thing happened in Finland so that now the original Sami
people can only be found north of Arctic Circle.
2.3.3 Sami cultures
Sami people have always settled thinly in a large area, making their living
mostly hunting and fishing, families having large hunting areas around them.
Connections to other people were rare although they had a strong sense of
community thinking when it came to dividing hunting/fishing areas between
families, and, of course, the marriages were made between people in nearby
regions. This seems to be the major reason why there is no one Sami culture
and language, but several Sami cultures and languages. The cultures have
been formed both by different surroundings and living conditions and varying
contacts with other cultures; in Sweden and Norway the Germanic culture, in
Finland the Finnish culture and in Kola peninsula the Russian and Karelian
cultures.
Forest Sami
Sami people living in coniferous forests lived mainly by fishing, but
hunting was also very important. Most of the Finnish and Swedish Sami people
belong to this group. Families formed Lappish villages ('siida') normally by
some large river. The size of the siida varied from just a couple of
families up to 20 or 30, totaling some hundred individuals. Watersheds were
natural borders between these villages. It was also common to have some
reindeer for transportation and for the furs, which were an important
material for clothing.
A special group of forest Sami are the Sami north of Lake Inari because
their language differs from the rest of forest Sami - it's the western most
dialect of eastern Sami languages.
Fjeld Sami
[About the word "fjeld": The ice age has shaped the Scandinavian mountains,
especially in Lapland, so that the top of them is round, and mostly bare. In
some Nordic languages there is a special word for them (fjell /fj�ll
/tunturi) to separate them from other mountains. There is also a rarely used
English word "fjeld" for the same purpose. The word "fjeld" means here a
(tree-less) mountain in Lapland.]
The fjeld Sami are also known as "reindeer Sami" because the reindeer is by
far the most important part of their economy. They live on the fjelds
between Sweden and Norway and on the highlands north of it tending their
herds. This kind of nomad culture is unique in Europe and as such it has
been the subject of a lot of interest. It has been seen as the most typical
form of Sami culture although as such it's only a few hundred years old.
It's not nearly as common as the half-nomad forest Sami culture. The fjeld
Sami do also some fishing and willow grouse (am. willow ptarmigan) trapping.
The importance of reindeer in the Sami culture can be seen in the fact that
in Sami languages there are about 400 names for reindeer according to
gender, age, color, shape etc.
One special group are the River Sami living around river Tana (Tenojoki) and
its tributaries. They live mainly fishing salmon but they also have some
agriculture and more permanent settlements than the fjeld Sami.
Sea Sami
The first written remark of the sea Sami living in northern Norway by the
Arctic Sea was made in year 892 by a Norwegian tribal chief Ottar. The
remark described that "up in the north there are people who hunt in the
winter and fish on the sea in the summer". This half-nomad culture is
strongly affected by both Norwegian and Finnish inhabitants. They live in
two different areas. The Norwegians call the northern people "sj�finner" and
the southern "bufinner".
Kola Peninsula Sami
The Lapps living in the Kola peninsula are the original population in that
area. The number of Lapps there has remained pretty much the same throughout
the years, slightly below 2000 people. They live mostly off fishing and
reindeering.
2.3.4 Sami religion
Living of the nature has formed the original religious views among Lapps;
the religion was animistic by nature, with shamanistic features. They
believed that all objects in the nature had a soul. Therefore, everybody was
expected to move quietly in the wilderness; shouting and making disturbance
was not allowed. This beautiful concept still prevails among Lapps.
The Lapps believed that alongside with the material world there was a
spiritual world, called saivo, where everything was more whole than in the
material world and where the dead continued their lives. Important places
had their divinities. Every force of nature had its god and sources of
livelihood were guarded by beings in spiritual world which could be
persuaded to be more favourable.
Not all beings in the spiritual world were benevolent; the most famous of
the malicious gnomes known in all Sami cultures was stallu (taalo in
Finnish). Stallu was a large and strong but simple human-like being living
in the forest, always traveling with a dog, r�hkka, and he could some times
steal a young Sami girl to become his wife.
The Sami had no priests but the head of the family was responsible for the
contact with gods with a "magic drum". A person with this special gift could
be 'called' and accepted by the community as a noaide (shaman). A noaide was
capable of visiting the saivo and people from far away would come to him/her
for advice.
In the forest you could find trees which resembled a human body, or you
could make one. These were called sieidde (in Finnish seita) and they were
worshiped. Also a strangely shaped stone or rock could be a sieidde.
Christian missionaries and priests normally didn't understand the religious
concepts of the Lapps, partly because of language problems. Sami people were
converted to Christianity by force and shamanic practices were forbidden. In
addition, the disintegration of the hunter/gatherer culture and the
transition to other forms of occupation meant that the old religion had less
meaning for the Sami. The "Sami apostle", Norwegian Thomas von Westen
(1682-1727) started public education among the Sea Sami in Sami language.
>From 1773 on Sami language teaching was forbidden and all teaching had to
be in Danish until nineteenth century.
Lars Levi L�stadius (1800-1861) has had the strongest religious influence on
Sami people and his thoughts spread all over Sami region although there is
evidence that elements of the original religion of the Sami was practiced as
late as the 1940's. Characteristic to L�stadius' ideas is the central
significance of parish. This has helped in preserving Sami culture.
2.3.5 Sami languages
As there are several Sami cultures there are also several Sami languages and
dialects. It is not known what kind of language the Sami originally spoke,
before any Finno-Ugric contacts. Now the common theory is that the Sami
languages developed through language exchange with early basic Finnish so
that there was some sort of basic Sami language somewhere 1000 BC - 700 AD
which then developed to various languages and dialects as we know them now.
Now Sami languages are regarded as Finno-Ugric languages and their closest
relatives are the Baltic-Finnic languages (Finnish, Estonian).
It's often hard to decide whether two related forms of speech are in fact
different languages or merely dialects of a single language, especially when
there are transition areas between them. Commonly the Sami languages are
divided into nine main dialectal areas.
The numbers in brackets represent the approximate number of speakers of the
language according to the Geographical distribution of the Uralic languages
made by the Finno-Ugric Society in 1993.
1. South Sami - in central Scandinavia [500]
2. Ume language [very few]
3. Pite language [very few]
4. Lule language [2 000]
5. Northern languages (Norwegian Sami, fjeld language) [30 000]
6. Enare language - north of lake Inari [400]
7. Skolt language - in Pechenga [500]
8. Kildin language - in central Kola peninsula [1 000]
9. Ter (Turja) language - in eastern Kola peninsula [500]
As there are several languages, there are also several grammars and
orthographies for them. The areas 2 - 5 have more or less the same written
language but several orthographies. Language 6 has its own orthography
whereas areas 7 - 9 use mainly Kildin language in publications.
The following description about the history of written Sami concerns mainly
the languages spoken in Sweden.
The first Sami books were religious literature, used for converting the Sami
people to Christianity during Gustav II Adolf's reign in the 17th century.
The first books (ABC book and mass book) were made by priest Nicolaus
Andreae in Pite� 1619, but they were in a very clumsy language. The first
written grammar was again made in Sweden by the priest Petrus Fiellstr�m in
Lycksele 1738.
For a long time the written texts in Sami languages were solely for
religious purposes. Poetry and other literature in Sami languages is rather
recent. In 1906 a Sami teacher Isak Saba (1875-1921) published a poem Same
soga lavla (the Song of Sami Family) which is known as the national anthem
of the Lapps. Four years later Johan Turi's (1854-1936) Muittalus samid
birra (A Story about Lapps) was published in Sweden. This is probably the
most famous volume written in Sami language. Just as an example what Sami
language looks like here's the first verse of Same soga lavla in the
orthographic form proposed by Sami Language Board in 1978 (c� and s� denote
c and s with apostrophe):
S�mi soga l�vlla Song of Sami Family
Guhkkin davvin D�vgg�id vuolde Far in the north under the Plough
sabm� suolggai S�mieatnan: looms quietly the land of Lapps:
duottar laebb� duoddar duohkin, a fjeld lies behind a fjeld,
j�vri seabb� j�vrri lahka, a lake spreads near a lake,
c�ohkat c�ilggiin, c�orut c�earuin peaks on ridges, tops on bare fjelds
all�naddet almmi vuost�; rise against the sky;
s��vvet jogat, s�uvvet vuovddit, rushing rivers, wuthering forests,
c�hket ceakko st�llinj�rggat steep steel capes stick
m�raideaddji mearaide. into roaring seas
2.3.6 The Sami as citizens
Before 1600s the Lapps lived their own life more or less undisturbed. They
were gradually pushed further north by new inhabitants but it happened
peacefully. It is believed that the Lapps were mainly following reindeers
and other wild animals which were also retreating further north.
In the 1600s, and later, there were some "colonialistic" features in the way
the Sami were treated by the kingdoms ruling over their lands. It was
considered "natural" to subjugate cultures that were regarded as
"undeveloped" and "primitive". At that time the government of Sweden-Finland
had a political goal to have permanent agricultural settlements in the
Swedish Lapland instead of sparse nomad inhabitation; it was thought that
keeping the area within the state would be easier that way. This is why many
Finns were also encouraged to move there. Although the same basic European
colonialistic thinking was also common in Scandinavia, it has to be noted
that the attitude towards the original people has never been as inhuman as
it was in many colonies elsewhere in the world.
As a general observation it can be said that as the Nordic countries divided
the Sami territories between states they failed to take into account the
Sami colonies and to let them develop naturally. Instead the Sami people
were forced to adapt to the cultural system of each country.
The Swedish king Gustav Vasa declared that "all permanently uninhabited land
belongs to God, Us and the Swedish crown". This declaration concerned also
the territories where Lapps lived. Because of their nomad way of living they
were not seen as "permanent inhabitants". Later the Sami's right for land
was stabilized as certain "family areas". In 1867 in Sweden a new
administrational "cultivation border" was formed. It goes several tens of
kilometers from the Norwegian border all the way from Karesuando to
J�mtlands L�n. All land in the Swedish territory was given to the Sami and
only Sami people were allowed to live there without a separate permission.
All activities that are done there need a permission and the money goes to
"Lapland fund". The money of this fund is used for reindeering, building
bridges, etc. in that area. All this is done by the state and the Sami
people have very little to say about how the money is to be used.
There have been discussions about the Sami's right for the natural resources
in their areas between the Nordic Council and the Nordic Sami Council but so
far there has been little progress in this issue.
There have been several agreements between the Nordic countries and the Sami
people but they are beyond the scope of this document.
All in all, the Nordic countries have not been indifferent about Sami but
due to lack of ethnosociological knowledge the Sami have been treated as
"children who don't know what's best for them".
Because arctic occupations favour the individual mind, and the Sami
population is sparse, their own activities as Nordic citizens have developed
very slowly. Also, belonging to four different countries doesn't make it
easier - on the other hand crossing borders between the Nordic countries has
never been a problem. This belonging to different countries has been one
factor which has increased the common sense of ethnicity among the Sami
people during this century. Only a few decades ago it was not desirable that
Lapp children spoke Sami with each other in school whereas now, in
principle, it's possible to complete university degrees in Sami language.
How many Sami are there, then? Well, that depends on who is counted as a
Sami and who isn't, as there has been much assimilation and mixing with the
rest of the population. Some figures were presented in the chapter
concerning Sami languages. Another often presented statistic tells that
there are 25000 Sami in Norway, 17000 in Sweden, 4000 in Finland and 2000 in
Russia. Yet another statistic which only counts people who speak Sami
languages as their mother tongue says: 10000 in Norway, 5000 in Sweden, 3000
in Finland and 1000 in Russia.
2.3.7 The Sami Today
For centuries the majority population has had a patronizing attitude towards
the Sami, which has affected cultural policy and politics. This policy was
abandoned after World War II. This phase was signaled in 1948 in Norway by
the official "Proposals for Sami School and Educational Affairs" from the
Coordinating Commission for the School System. A definitive change did not
come before 1963, however, when the Norwegian parliament discussed the
recommendations of the Sami Committee of 1956. The official policy then
adopted is expressed in the Parliamentary Records for 1962-1963 as follows:
"The policy of the national state must be to give the
Sami-speaking population the opportunity to preserve its language
and other cultural customs on terms that accord with the expressed
wishes of the Sami themselves."
Later in 1980 the Norwegian government appointed two new commissions with
very extensive mandates: the Sami Rights Committee and the Sami Cultural
Committee. At the moment demands for clarification and legalization of local
rights in areas traditionally used by the Sami are under consideration by
the Sami Rights Committee. Since much of this area has diversified use by
different Sami and non-Sami groups, it has been difficult to arrive at a
just and nationwide solution.
The Nordic Sami Council was established in 1956 to promote cooperation among
the Sami in Finland, Norway and Sweden. The Council has 12 members, 4 from
each country. Both state authorities and the Nordic Council have recognized
the Sami Council as a legitimate spokesman for the Sami and have met many of
its demands.
The Sami have their own flag which was officially acknowledged in the 13th
Nordic Sami Conference in 1986. The flag is designed by Astrid B�hl from
Skibotn in Troms, Norway. The basic idea in the flag is a symbol from a
drum. The circle is a symbol of sun and moon - the sun ring is red and the
moon ring blue. The colours are also the colours used in Sami costumes.
The Cultural Heritage Act, passed in 1978 in Norway, states that everything
which is more than 100 years old and related to the cultural heritage of the
Sami, is automatically protected by law - this is to protect historic sites
and monuments.
Sami as an elective language is taught in primary schools in several places
in Lapland. Special Sami high schools are located in
Kautokeino/Guovdageaidnu and Karasjok/Karasjohka. Sami language and culture
courses are taught at several universities in the Nordic countries.
Modern Sami applied art has largely extended the development of traditional
Sami handicrafts such as horn- and wood-carving, basketry, leather work,
etc. Sami art appears at present to be undergoing an important period of
creativity - this applies to music as well. The traditional Sami folk song,
the 'joik', has won increasing recognition and interest. The Norwegian Sami
Singer Mari Boine Persen has won international fame among world music fans,
while in Finland e.g Nils-Aslak Valkeap�� (who sang joik in the opening
ceremonies of Lillehammer Olympics), Wimme Saari (who mixes joik with
ambient techno backgrounds) and the band Angelin Tyt�t have gained acclaim.
There are five Sami newspapers, or newspapers intended for Sami readers, in
the three Nordic countries but the circulation figures for them are small.
The newspapers and magazines are dependent on state funds for their
existence. Radio programs are broadcast in all three countries, in
Karasjok/Karasjohka (Norway), Kiruna (Sweden) and Inari/Enare (Finland).
Plans exist for the establishment of a Nordic-Sami production center for
radio and television programs, but the extent and form of cooperation have
not yet been agreed upon.
Because of growing Sami cultural consciousness and sympathetic official
minority policies, there is good cause for believing that the Sami will
survive as a viable ethnic and cultural group in Scandinavia. The meaning of
"Sami" will change as the way of life itself changes. The Sami's own actions
and self-conception will be decisive in forming the future meaning of the
term - or, as one S�mi scholar put it when asked about the S�mi tradition:
"Tradition? As of when? Fifty years ago, a hundred years ago, or a
thousand years ago? We adapt our ways to fit the times."
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Acknowledgments:
I would like to thank Jari Oksanen <[email protected]> of Troms� University
and John Blood <[email protected]> of Sami Association of North America
for their help, opinions and references.
References:
Karl Nickul: Saamelaiset kansana ja kansalaisina, 1970
Mikko Korhonen: Johdatus lapin kielen historiaan, 1981 ISBN 951-717-248-6
Bj�rn Aarseth: The Sami Past and Present, Norsk Folkemuseum, Oslo 1993 ISBN
82-90036-32-9
Johan Turi: Kertomus saamelaisista, 1979 ISBN 951-0-08410-7 (based on
Muittalus samid birra, 1910)
SANA Sami Association of North America
ODIN (Offentlig dokumentasjon og informasjon i Norge)
2.3.8 SANA - The Saami Association of North America
(from: Ruth M. Sylte)
SANA was formed on 10 April 1994 in Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
The purpose of SANA is to create a strong Saami presence and an
understanding of the Saami people and Saami culture in North America.
Membership includes a subscription to the North American Saami Journal,
which will continue to function as the official organ of communication for
the group.
SANA encompasses both the United States and Canada. It has recently been
given permanent observer status at the Saami Governing Council.
For more information, contact:
Susan Gunness Myers, SANA USA
10010 Monticello Lane North
Maple Grove, MN 55369 USA
E-mail: <[email protected]>
Faith Fjeld, Editor
BAIKI
3548 14th Avenue South
Minneapolis, MN 55407 USA
2.3.9 The Saami in Internet
(I'd hate to say this, but... this chapter is still very much under
construction...)
Saami links:
* The Saami of Norway by Elina Helander, ODIN
* The Saami "Parliament" of Sweden
* The Saami in Finland University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland
* Links to Saami resources
* Sami Lappland Culture Page by the s.c.n. contributor Glenn J�rstad
Jakobsen
* S�mi Association of North America - the homepage of SANA
* Martin Rippert's S�pmi page
* Karasjok Opplevelser's hovedside
* Bures boahtin S�pm�i - Welcome to the Sami nation
...and of course, there is always:
...and of course, there is always:
[Yahoo! - SaamiCulture?]
------------------------------
Subject: 2.4 What do we know about Scandinavian mythology?
Not very much, I'm afraid, and we're lucky to know even as much as we do.
For example, most of the ancient poems about pagan deities (they're the most
authentic source of Norse mythology) that survived to this date are from a
certain book called Codex Regius, the only extant copy of which was rescued
in half-rotten condition from an abandoned Icelandic barn in the 17th
century.
2.4.1 Short introduction to the sources
Although the Vikings were, in theory, a literate people, the runic script
was never used for anything more complicated than a few sentences, usually
commemorating some person or event, e.g "Bjorn had these runes carved in the
memory of Hofdi. He died in S�rkland." The runestones and other
archaeological material offer clues as to the nature of the Norse religion,
and there are some accounts by Christian and Moslem contemporaries of the
Vikings -- e.g the bishop of Hamburg, Adam von Bremen, and the Arab traveler
Ibn Fadlan -- but the main sources of information are the Eddas, written
down in Iceland in the early middle ages. The Poetic Edda is a collection of
poems on mythological themes by anonymous poets; even more important is the
Prose Edda written by the Icelandic scholar Snorri Sturluson in about 1220,
which is a collection of old heathen myths in prose form. For more about
sagas and Eddas, see section 5.5. The medieval Danish historian Saxo
Grammaticus can also be mentioned, but he is less reliable and perhaps less
interesting to read.
The problem with those sources is that they were written down hundreds of
years after the conversion of Scandinavians to Christianity, indeed some of
the authors (e.g Saxo) were members of the Catholic clergy, and their work
is to some extent influenced by Christian and classical ideas. Also, the
picture given is no doubt biased towards the particular form of pagan
religion practiced in Iceland; while the main deities Odin, Thor and Freyr
seem to have been worshiped all over Scandinavia, there must have been a lot
of local variation, local deities, differences in emphasis given to the main
deities and their aspects, etc.
Nevertheless, the stories of the Eddas have become a common cultural
heritage of the Scandinavian countries, and at least a basic knowledge of it
is a must for anybody interested in Scandinavian culture.
The following summary of the main features of Scandinavian mythology is
taken from the excellent book Gods and Myths of Northern Europe, by
H.R.Ellis Davidson, 1964, pages 26-30, Penguin Books.
2.4.2 The World Tree Yggdrasill
This world had for its centre a great tree, a mighty ash called Yggdrasill.
So huge was this tree that its branches stretched out over heaven and earth
alike. Three roots supported the great trunk, and one passed into the realm
of the Aesir, a second into that of the frost-giants, and a third into the
realm of the dead. Beneath the root in giant-land was the spring of Mimir,
whose waters contained wisdom and understanding. Odin had given one of his
eyes to drink a single draught of that precious water.
Below the tree in the kingdom of the Aesir was the sacred spring of fate,
the Well of Urd. Here every day the gods assembled for their court of law,
to settle disputes and discuss common problems. All came on horseback except
Thor, who preferred to wade through the rivers that lay in his path, and
they were led by Odin on the finest of all steeds, the eight-legged horse
Sleipnir. The gods galloped over the bridge Bifrost, a rainbow bridge that
glowed with fire. They alone might cross it, and the giants who longed to do
so were held back. Near the spring of fate dwelt three maidens called the
Norns, who ruled the destinies of men, and were called Fate (Urdr), Being
(Verdandi), and Necessity (Skuld). They watered the tree each day with pure
water and whitened it with clay from the spring, and in this way preserved
its life, while the water fell down to earth as dew.
The tree was continually threatened, even as it grew and flourished, by the
living creatures that preyed upon it. On the topmost bough sat an eagle,
with a hawk perched on its forehead: the same eagle, perhaps, of whom it is
said that the flapping of its wings caused the winds in the world of men. At
the root of the tree lay a great serpent, with many scores of lesser snakes,
and these gnawed continually at Yggdrasill. The serpent was at war with the
eagle, and a nimble squirrel ran up and down the tree, carrying insults from
one to the other. Horned creatures, harts and goats, devoured the branches
and tender shoots of the tree, leaping at it from every side.
2.4.3 The Creation of the world
The tree formed a link between the different worlds. We are never told of
its beginning, but of the creation of the worlds of which it formed a centre
there is much to tell. In the beginning there were two regions: Muspell in
the south, full of brightness and fire; and a world of snow and ice in the
north. Between them stretched the great emptiness of Ginnungagap. As the
heat and the cold met in the midst of the expanse, a living creature
appeared in the melting ice, called Ymir. He was a great giant, and from
under his left arm grew the first man and woman, while from his two feet the
family of frost-giants was begotten. Ymir fed upon the milk of a cow called
Audhumla, who licked the salty ice-blocks and released another new being, a
man called Buri. He had a son called Bor, and the sons of Bor were the three
gods, Odin, Vili, and Ve. These three slew Ymir the ancient giant, and all
the frost-giants save one, Bergelmir, were drowned in his surging blood.
From Ymir's body they formed the world of men:
... from his blood the sea and the lakes, from his flesh the
earth, and from his bones the mountains; from his teeth and jaws
and such bones as were broken they formed the rocks and the
pebbles.
From Ymir's skull they made the dome of sky, placing a dwarf to support it
at each of the four corners and to hold it high above the earth. This world
of men was protected from the giants by a wall, made from the eyebrows of
Ymir, and was called Midgard. The gods created inhabitants for it from two
trees on the sea-shore, which became a man and a woman. They gave to them
spirit and understanding, the power of movement, and the use of senses. They
created also the dwarfs, creatures with strange names, who bred in the earth
like maggots, and dwelt in hills and rocks. These were skilled craftsmen,
and it was they who wrought the great treasures of the gods. The gods caused
time to exist, sending Night and Day to drive round the heavens in chariots
drawn by swift horses. Two fair children, a girl called Sun and a boy called
Moon, were also set by them on paths across the sky. Sun and Moon had to
drive fast because they were pursued by wolves, who meant to devour them. On
the day when the greatest of the wolves succeeded in swallowing the Sun, the
end of all things would be at hand.
2.4.4 Asgard, the realm of the Gods
Once heaven and earth were formed, it was time to set about the building of
Asgard, the realm of the gods. Here there were many wonderful halls, in
which the gods dwelt. Odin himself lived in Valaskjalf, a hall roofed with
silver, where he could sit in his special seat and view all the worlds at
once. He had another hall called Valhalla, the hall of the slain, where he
offered hospitality to all those who fell in battle. Each night they feasted
on pork that never gave out, and on mead which flowed instead of milk from
the udders of the goat Heidrun, one of the creatures that fed upon
Yggdrasill. Odin's guests spent the day in fighting, and all who fell in the
combat were raised again in the evening to feast with the rest. Horns of
mead were carried to them by the Valkyries, the maids of Odin, who had also
to go down to the battlefields of earth and decide the course of war,
summoning fallen warriors to Valhalla. Somewhere in Asgard there was a
building with a roof of gold, called Gimli, to which it was said that
righteous men went after death. There were other realms beyond Asgard, like
Alfheim, where the fair elves lived, and as many as three heavens,
stretching one beyond the other.
2.4.5 The Gods
As to the gods who dwelt in Asgard, Snorri twice gives their number as
twelve, excluding Odin himself. Odin was the father and head of the Aesir;
he was called All-Father, but had many other names, among them One-Eyed, God
of the Hanged, God of Cargoes, and Father of Battle. He journeyed far and
wide over the earth, and had two ravens to bring him tidings from afar. His
eldest son was Thor, whose mother was Earth. Thor was immensely strong, and
drove in a chariot drawn by goats. He possessed three great treasures: the
hammer Mjollnir, which could slay giants and shatter rocks; a belt of power
which doubled his strength; and iron gloves with which to grasp the terrible
hammer.
Another son of Odin was Balder, said to be the fairest of all and most
deserving of praise; he was white of skin and bright-haired, and was both
wise and merciful. The gods Njord and Freyr were also dwellers in Asgard,
but were not of the race of the Aesir. Njord came of the Vanir, and was sent
to Asgard as a hostage when the two races were at war, and Freyr was his
son. Njord controlled the winds and the sea, helped in fishing and
seafaring, and brought men wealth, while Freyr gave sunshine and rain and
the gifts of peace and plenty. Freyr possessed the ship Skithblathnir, large
enough to hold all the gods, but small enough when folded to lie in a pouch,
and also a wonderful boar with golden bristles.
Another god was Tyr, who could give victory in battle, and it was he who
bound the monster Fenrir and was left as a result with only one hand. There
was also Bragi, who was skilled in the use of words and in making poetry. We
hear, too, of Heimdall, who was called the white god, and was said to be the
son of nine maidens. His dwelling was beside the rainbow bridge, for he
acted as the gods' warden, guarding heaven from the frost-giants. He could
see for an immense distance, while his ears were sharp enough to catch the
sound of grass growing on earth, and wool on sheep. He owned the
Gjallarhorn, whose ringing blast could be heard through all the worlds.
There was also among the gods Loki, the son of a giant, who was handsome to
look upon but given to evil ways. He was a cunning schemer, who both helped
and hindered the gods, and he gave birth to the wolf Fenrir, to the World
Serpent, and to Hel, the ruler of the land of death. These were the chief of
gods, and beside them were others of whom we know little: Ull, a famous
archer and skier, Forseti, the son of Balder and a good law-giver, Hoder, a
blind god, and Hoenir, who was sometimes the companion of Odin and Loki in
their wanderings. The sons of the great gods, like Vali, Vidar, and Magni,
had special parts to play, for they were to inherit the world of Asgard when
the older generation had perished.
2.4.6 The Goddesses
There were also certain mighty goddesses. Frigg was the wife of Odin, and
like him knew the future of gods and men. Freyja was Freyr's twin sister,
and the most renowned of all the goddesses; she helped in affairs of love
and had some power over the dead. She drove in a chariot drawn by cats.
Freyja was said to have husband called Od, who left her to weep tears of red
gold at his disappearance. Skadi, the wife of Njord, came from the mountains
to marry the sea god. The marriage was not a success, because neither was
willing to live away from home, and in the end Skadi went back to the hills,
where she went on skis and hunted with the bow. Bragi's wife was Idun, who
had one important part to play: she guarded the apples of immortality, on
which the gods feasted in order to keep their perpetual youth. Other
goddesses are little more than names. Thor's wife, Skif, had wonderful
golden hair. Balder's wife was Nanna, and Loki's Sigyn, while Gna and Fulla
are mentioned as servants of Frigg. There is also Gefion, to whom unmarried
girls went after death.
.... do you want to know more?
The Lule� University has a web-site with more information at
<http://www.luth.se/luth/present/sweden/history/viking_level.html>.
------------------------------
Subject: 2.5 What about those horned Viking helmets?
Surprising though it may sound, the Vikings have never worn even the tiniest
little horns in their helmets. Viking helmets did sometimes have neat
figures and all kinds of decorations, but not horns. There are some Danish
bog-findings of ritual helmets that do have metal horns in them, but these
date from the Bronze age -- some 2000 years before the Vikings.
The idea has its roots in the art of the Romantic period -- first half of
the 19th century -- when the artists started to introduce native myths and
legends in painting and sculpture instead of Greco-Roman ones. But since
archaeology as a science didn't really even exist yet, they had a very poor
idea of what sort of equipment the heroes of the sagas had used. So they
used their creative imagination. Later, despite the fact that we now know
better, the myth has been further popularized by Hollywood movies and comics
such as Hagar the Horrible, and nowadays a "Viking" is almost by definition
"someone who wears a pair of horns in his head".
------------------------------
Subject: 2.6 The essence of Nordishness
The Nordic states, cultures or languages are of course very different if
judged by us Nordeners ourself. :->> But seen from the outside the cultural
characteristics are not more different than we all well could have belonged
to the same nation. Not quite seriously, I here use the unconventional term
"Nordishness" for the characteristics of us - as if Norden had been one
state or nation.
2.6.1 What is Janteloven?
The word "Janteloven" occasionally pops up in s.c.n, often with no hint
given as to what it's supposed to mean since apparently it's common
knowledge in most Nordic countries. Not so with the rest of the world,
however, or Finland for that matter, so a brief explanation warrants a
place. It derives from the the novel "En flygtning krysser sitt spor" ("A
refugee crosses his tracks") by the Norwegian/Danish author Aksel Sandemose.
The book takes place in an imaginary Danish small town called Jante, based
on Sandemose's hometown Nyk�bing Mors. The book is about the ugly sides of
Scandinavian smalltown mentality, and the term "Janteloven" meaning "the
Jante Law" has come to mean the unspoken rules and jealousy of such
communities in general.
The form and style of the Ten Commandments in Norwegian are "straight," i.e.
unencumbered by the "thous" and "thys" of the older English translations of
the Bible. I've made the assumption that Sandemose deliberately chose 10
laws and that his style was intentionally reminiscent of the Ten
Commandments. It's also interesting to note that the Ten Commandments (and
the other laws of Leviticus) are often referred to as "Moseloven" (or the
Mosaic Law) in Norwegian.
Also, there are some messages that are implied in these laws that are not
explicit.I've included those in brackets so as to convey the meaning better,
although they should properly be construed as editorializing on my part.
This translation of the Jante Laws was suggested by Leif Knutsen (except
that I replaced "venture to think" with "to presume", as suggested by
someone in the group):
The Jante Law
1. Du skal ikke tro at du *er* noe.
Thou shalt not presume that thou art anyone [important].
2. Du skal ikke tro at du er like saa meget som *oss*.
Thou shalt not presume that thou art as good as us.
3. Du skal ikke tro at du er klokere en *oss*.
Thou shalt not presume that thou art any wiser than us.
4. Du skal ikke innbille deg du er bedre enn *oss*.
Thou shalt never indulge in the conceit of imagining that thou art
better than us.
5. Du skal ikke tro du vet mere enn *oss*.
Thou shalt not presume that thou art more knowledgeable than us.
6. Du skal ikke tro du er mere enn *oss*.
Thou shalt not presume that thou art more than us [in any way].
7. Du skal ikke tro at *du* duger til noe.
Thou shalt not presume that that thou art going to amount to anything.
8. Du skal ikke le av *oss*.
Thou art not entitled to laugh at us.
9. Du skal ikke tro at noen bryr seg om *deg*.
Thou shalt never imagine that anyone cares about thee.
10. Du skal ikke tro at du kan l�re *oss* noe.
Thou shalt not suppose that thou can teach us anything.
2.6.2 A Nordic national character?
Since nordishness can be depicted only in contrast to other cultural
patterns, the following features have been collected among immigrants to
Sweden, as representative for their impression of their new compatriots. The
cultural anthropologist �ke Daun has written quite a few articles and books
on this topic in the Swedish language. The following is an attempt to
concentrate the most important of his points.
Many point out how they never get invited to neighbors or colleagues. This
is easy to interpret as a suppressed hostility, i.e. as xenophobia or
discrimination. To a limited extent such interpretations might be justified,
but it could also be explained by the social pattern among the Swedes. Also
Nordeners can be good colleagues - year after year - without this making
them meeting privately. We tend to draw a clear border between our private
life on one side with a few close friends and a bunch of relatives, and on
the other side social contacts with others. To one's home one receives
siblings with families maybe an old schoolmate or some friend since the
childhood, and maybe one or two "recent" friends with their families, for
instance a former or actual neighbor or colleague.
But it's typical how this circle is rather narrow and additionally stable
over the years. A consequence is that it's rather hard for newcomers to a
town or a village to break into such a narrow circle, particularly for
aliens.
This feature is enforced by the strong tendency among Swedes to achieve
socio-cultural homogeneity. Another typical Nordic feature contributes to
this tendency: the wish for conflict free encounters in the private life.
Swedes are particularly prone to achieve consensus in attitudes and
opinions, and avoid socializing with others than like-minded people.
Confrontations are regarded as particularly unpleasant. Nordeners are not
curious enough to balance for this fear for the different. We do also not
believe ourselves to be interesting enough to wake the curiousness of
others, and to compensate for this there must be food and beverages, and
maybe particular activities, when meeting others.
Another feature worth to note is shyness, which is particularly prevalent
among Finns and Scandinavians. People feel inhibited around others one
doesn't know well, and one is very observant on one's own behavior since it
is regarded as very important to control which impression others get of
oneself. Among less well known people, one gets extra careful since it is
harder to anticipate their perceptions and reactions.
Another reason to not visiting others and not inviting others is the high
requirement one wish to comply to regarding food and cleanliness when
foreigners visit one's home. To feel comfortable with foreigners at home,
one needs a long time for emotional and practical preparations.
A sign of the borderline between the private sphere and work is the Nordic
resistance against small talk about private matters with strangers, which
has been reported to be a great hinder in business contacts in foreign
countries.
The lack of passions strangers might perceive in Nordics is surely both
reflecting a genuine trait and the fact that most strangers don't meet
Nordics in a context the Nordics would regard as private and unrestrained
(except for drunk appearances - see section 2.10!).
Rational reasons have a strong precedence over for emotional reasons.
Emotions are not at all disapproved in all contexts, but they are regarded
as "pure" emotions of no further value than to signal one's general
unhappiness with life or fate.
Quietness is regarded as the commonly accepted norm, and noisy fellows are
strongly disapproved. Vociferous stubbornness is deemed as very
ill-mannered. As is interrupting and talking in the mouth of others.
The Nordic ideal is to think twice before one speaks, and to utter only
one's most firm beliefs, and only when there is a considered intention. What
one says is remembered for ages, and if one says something stupid or "wrong"
it will be proof of one's stupidness and general incompetence,
....and can be used against one in encounters ages afterward...
To be kind and good-natured is important. One prefer to be quiet or
agreeable instead of uttering an opposing opinion, unless one really aims at
hurting.
Leaving the professional ethnologist �ke Daun aside, we can note how the
Norwegians and the Finns, who gained independence first in the 20:th century
tend to be much more nationalistic than Danes or Swedes. Tor Slettnes points
out how Norwegians are generally strongly affected by their own culture.
Norwegian national romanticism has of course its roots in the independence
movements from Denmark, Sweden, and German occupants, and is much more
accepted and appreciated by Norwegians themselves, than by outsiders.
Because nationalism often (in Germany, Sweden, USA etc) has been a political
taboo, later to be picked up by anti-establishment semi-nazi groups,
citizens of these places might find the Norwegian national pride hard to
swallow.
....oh, and I almost forgot! Nordeners usually think we are very good at
upbringing children, condemning the "cold" and unfriendly attitudes to
children in for instance France or the UK. Spanking of children is not
acceptable anymore, and actually unlawful in most countries.
------------------------------
Subject: 2.7 Sex, drugs and censorship
Usenet being what it is, dominated by Americans, makes some issues more
confusing than others. How come the Nordic societies are so liberal on
pornography and promoting indecent lifestyles (also known as homosexuality)
but so repressive against smokers (of usual cigarettes as well as joints)
and other drug users? Isn't it a contradiction that films get censored due
to "excessive violence" in the countries which all over the world are
notorious for their free sex and as the base for Nazi propaganda? What a
strange mixture of liberalism and intolerant censure!
2.7.1 unwritten (about sex in the Nordic cultures)
~~~~~~~~~
2.7.3 Pornography
[ Lennart Regebro writes: ]
Norway and Iceland don't allow pornography, but through the years the
definition of what is pornography has got more liberal.
When most countries signed some kind of paper banning porn (I think it was
during the twenties) Sweden didn't sign since the paper was against the
Swedish constitution. (Sweden has one of the world's best protections for
Freedom of Speech.) Thus, Sweden got its reputation, because in Sweden you
could actually make porn magazines.
However, some time during the sixties, Denmark removed its laws prohibiting
this stuff, and became a mecca for Nordic Sex. It still is in many senses.
For example, the view on "unusual" sex seems much more relaxed in Denmark.
Sado-Masochism seems pretty accepted, for example, while it in Sweden seems
to be taboo. Sweden (just like Denmark) doesn't allow distribution of
child-pornography. Although you legally can own it, the police can take it,
since it is evidence for child-misuse. Owning it is not an offense, though.
It is the same for what is called violence-pornography. Exactly what this is
seems rather loosely defined, and I don't know if somebody actually has been
convicted for distributing it. I think it is aimed against S&M, but I'm not
sure. Maybe it is just to stop snuff movies and such.
[ someone else: ]
Finland has its own major contribution to the porn industry in the famous
(and newly deceased) artist Touko Laaksonen (alias: Tom of Finland), who
from the 1940:ies and forward published a lot of often overt erotic drawings
of Nordic males as forest workers, bikers, firemen and policemen with pretty
faces, huge dicks, and a shameless amount of appetite for each other.
2.7.4 Censorship in the Nordic countries
[ Gunnar Medin writes: ]
Denmark is an easy case. There is no censorship at all. Not for adults
anyway. A film can be prohibited for viewing in a movie theater by children
below 12 or 16, but no censor decide what adult people can see. (But some
kind of pictures are unlawful to show, i.e. child pornography.) This does
not mean that charges cannot subsequently be brought against publishers of
the material for breaking of laws like racist allegations, libel slander or
perhaps copyright issues. But the main thing is that there is never any
preemptive censorship.
Another thing is what the audience like! American films seem sometimes to
get distributed in two versions. One cut for Northern Europe with more sex
and less violence, and one for US with less nakedness but more violence. US
films with relatively explicit sex scenes, e.g. Basic Instinct, are often
made in one version for Europe and one shorter ("censored") version for the
USA. The only reason I have heard of for censoring films in Sweden in modern
times is violence.
[ someone else: ]
In Sweden, the same laws apply to what you can and what you can not show on
movies and video. The difference is, that movies are checked for violations
*before* being shown, while videos are only checked if there is a complaint.
This means that a movie distributor /theater can never be convicted for what
they show in movies since the censoring system absolves them from
responsibility. In contrast, video distributors can be convicted for selling
and renting videos with prohibited content.
The same rule also holds for printed matter in Sweden. Books which are
libelous, infringes copyrights, prints military secrets etc. can never be
censored *before* publication.
The problem with doing this for movie theaters is that it takes so long time
to get a conviction, so that the movie would have stopped showing anyway. In
effect, it would "remove" the censoring, unless you would get long jail
sentence. That would in turn lead to the much worse 'self-censoring' system
that exists in the US.
[ Otto-Ville Ronkainen: ]
In Finland, all films are subject to a preview by the State Film Approval
Office, which can approve the film for all audiences or for audiences above
a certain age. The highest age limit is K-18. If a film can't be shown as
K-18 as such, it must be cut or it can't be shown. Nowadays the standards on
sex are more lenient than in the US. Movies that are R-rated in the US can
be K-12 or K-10 here.
For video films, the Finnish system requires the limit to be K-16 or less,
so K-18 films have to be cut to be released on video. However, such
restrictions don't exist on import for own use, so the real enthusiasts can
get their films uncut from England or Denmark, for instance.
[ Kari Yli-Kuha: ]
Currently, the Finnish censorship is about to be abolished, since with the
current information technology it's practically impossible to prevent people
from seeing whatever they want. It's not so important what the adults see or
do not see, but removing censorship, the main purpose of which has been to
guard children from the most hard-core violence, emphasizes the role of
parents.
2.7.5 Drugs in the Nordic countries
This is a controversial theme, which maybe can be illustrated by the
following quotes from the news group:
[ Stein J. Rypern <[email protected]> writes: ]
At least Norwegian culture is pretty clear on this - drugs are out.
Alcohol and nicotine are allowed, but with some restrictions:
* advertising for either alcohol or cigarettes are prohibited
* there are hefty "sin taxes" on both products,
* there is a law against smoking in many public places
* spirits, wine and beer in tax group 3 (with more than about 4.5%
alcohol per volume unit) is only sold in the government monopoly shops
(and licensed bars and restaurants, of course).
Norway is culturally a part of the "vodka belt", where occasional drinking
yourself into a stupor at parties is socially acceptable, but not really
done all that much by people who are above the age of 20.
There is a fairly strong taboo against drinking and driving. It still
happens, of course - but most people have the sense to park the car and take
a cab home or arrange for one person to stay sober and drive the others home
when they have been drinking.
What has all this got to do with drugs? Not a lot, I guess :-)
Drugs just aren't socially acceptable. Might be part of the puritanical
heritage of Norwegians; might be common sense - we know how to deal with
drinking (we drink, get drunk, fall down, no problem :-), but not with using
drugs. Several decades of good propaganda work by the health authorities
have also firmly fixed the idea that "smoking marihuana leads to the use of
heavier drugs" in our minds. It may or may not be true - I don't much care
either way - I see no need for people to use drugs when we have the
time-honored way of getting blasted - alcohol. :-)
I guess people also see using drugs as something done by junkies and
prostitutes and people who are down and out. There are no role models who
advocate the use of drugs.
I accept my neighbor's right to meddle in my decisions when what I do affect
him. When I expect him to pay my medical bills (through taxes) if I need
surgery or when I drive my car down the street where his kids go to school
after drinking or using drugs. In those cases it is not just my personal
choice, it is also my neighbors problem. Most Norwegians seem to be somewhat
more inclined toward the common good than individual freedom.
The "relaxed" attitudes of the Scandinavian countries are mostly an US myth,
I suspect. Just because we don't have all your hang-ups about sex and don't
pay lip service to "godliness" doesn't mean that anything goes over here :-)
Coffee, loud music, fat food, skiing slopes too steep for you - all these
things might cause some kind of damage to your health. It is neither
desirable nor practical to try to ban everything that "is bad for you". I am
willing to accept some risks.
After all - life is dangerous - must be close to a 100% fatality rate, eh?
;-)
Keeping drugs banned is practical politics as long as the number of drug
(ab)users is fairly limited. Politics is doing what we believe is right,
within the confines of what is possible in the real world.
I don't think you can cure most drug addicts from their addiction. I would
prefer to spend whatever resources we can afford to spend on preventing or
actively hindering people from being recruited into drug addiction. Based on
the principle "one stitch in time saves nine". Prevention tend to be less
expensive both in terms of money and human suffering than trying to cure an
existing condition. I don't know what is the cheapest alternative. I believe
that it is that as few people as possible use drugs. I also believe that
making drugs illegal, hard to get and as expensive as possible will make
fewer people start doing drugs. I draw my line between smoking /drinking on
one side and doing drugs on the other side. For practical reasons - it is a
line I believe can be enforced.
[ _text <[email protected]"_text> writes: ]
The situation also varies from country to country. Denmark is most
tolerable, and in contrast, Sweden's attitude towards drugs has become
something close to paranoia, planning to criminalize even prostitution. I
feel that since Palme's murder Sweden hasn't been the country it used to be.
As if the nation had lost her faith in tomorrow.
Norway and Finland are somewhere between. Probably more close to Sweden than
Denmark. Most Scandinavians don't come personally in touch with drugs. They
see drugs only in (American) movies. Therefore the Nordic sense of reality
hasn't become part of their drug-policy.
If one is caught in Finland with, say, with 2 grams of hash, there won't be
any prosecution. BUT the considering, which takes one minute for a policeman
in the streets of Helsinki, may take several days for a rural police chief
in Kajaani. - Meanwhile the "criminal" stays in custody!
[ From: Anders Nordseth <[email protected]> ]
In Copenhagen, Denmark, they also sell cannabis in the open, in the
so-called Pusher Street in Christiania. There they have sale-stands where
they sell hashish, and the police bothers only once in a while.
I would agree that Norway and Finland are closer to Sweden than Denmark. For
smuggling cannabis products in larger amounts you might in Norway risk 21
years in prison, which is the highest sentences one can get in Norway (the
same as homicide).
Recently, a person from Denmark was caught smuggling 30 kg of hashish from
Denmark to Norway. He escaped from Norway and went back to Denmark. The
Norwegian authorities wanted to seek extradition for him, but the Danish
authorities didn't look at the crime as serious enough, so they didn't
extradite him. He is a free man in Denmark, in Norway he would have been a
"very dangerous criminal".
Possessing smaller amounts of cannabis, is not that serious. In the bigger
cities (like Oslo) you would usually get a fine, in smaller places in Norway
you might risk some days in prison.
The crimes involved with drugs are caused by drug addicts who need money to
finance their use of drugs. If it wasn't prohibited, the price would not
have been as high, and they wouldn't have to resort to theft, prostitution
or robbery to finance their drug use.
Use of alcohol leads to violent behavior more often than the use of drugs. A
stoned person is quite harmless. I've been driving cab in Oslo for several
years on weekend nights while studying. Drug addicts or stoned people have
never caused me any problems, drunk people have very often caused me
problems.
It's a dilemma, what problems should we choose? My opinion is that it would
be a more fair distribution of the problems if we legalize drugs. Today a
lot of innocent people suffer for the criminal acts done by drug-addicts
hunting for money. By legalizing drugs, more people will probably have
personal problems, but less innocent people will have problems caused by
drug-use. And remember, everyone has that choice to "Just say no". It might
be a cynical view, but freedom has its costs.
[ From: Nils Ek <[email protected]> ]
The serious health risks imposed by cannabis, cocaine, heroin, etc. have
been well established (at least to the satisfaction of most educated people)
by responsible medical groups. In Scandinavia, those who abuse their bodies
with alcohol and/or drugs are entitled to publicly-funded health-care. So
perhaps it's no wonder that the governments decide they'd rather not put up
with the medical as well as social costs of de-criminalized intoxicant
drugs. Of course these arguments and conclusions have been vehemently denied
by the addicts (or counter-culture drug proponents, if you will).
Rather than tolerance, the issue may be one of: whom do you believe? The
Nordics probably have more respect for their medical community than
elsewhere, e.g. compared to U.S. where it's perceived as "big-business".
Meanwhile the counter-culture types typically believe they have tapped into
some ancient secrets of the orient. However, I believe that for many people,
this has to be a turn-off because of the use in oriental "natural" medicine
of bears' gall-bladders, tiger penises, and rhino horns. Perhaps this is why
pro-drug arguments of (American) counter-culture seem to have less of a
foothold there.
------------------------------
Subject: 2.8 Nordic socialism and welfare
The Nordic societies can be characterized as countries with rather subtile
class differences. To define which class people belong to has become harder
in the last 50 years, when the democracy has led to compulsory education and
social insurances for everyone. Equality has been the slogan best remembered
from the French revolution, and strong labor unions have achieved many of
their goals, with for instance manual workers often earning well as much as
lower officials and teachers.
2.8.1 Wouldn't the Nordic economies gain from abolishing socialism?
Let's make a few things straight!
The words "Socialism" - "Liberalism" - "Conservatism" are used in a very
different way in the USA compared to the usage in the continental Europe and
in Norden. In soc.culture.nordic we use these words as they are understood
in Europe:
Liberalism and Socialism are in Europe basically defined as ideas with a
great deal of heritage from early liberal and socialistic writers.
Liberalism could be said to revolve around freedom from the power of the
mighty, and socialism around freedom from the power of the rich.
Democratic freedom is per definition a liberal virtue.
Some social democrats might be classified as much of a liberal, but most are
definitely not. The program of the Social Democratic parties are not
understood as liberal, but when it comes to practical pragmatic politics and
policies the outcome might be a mixture between the own program and other
ideas.
Conservatism is likewise defined as ideas succeeding the writings of Burke,
Disraeli and other classical political writers. There are two major branches
among the conservatives: the social-conservatives and the
value-conservatives. The value-conservatives? Oh, that's people who speak a
lot of the importance of the church, the army, the family and maybe the
crown (king/ government) and are very happy to spend all the tax money on
those institutions instead of extravagances on children, disabled and
unemployed.
Socialism is the people's control over the means of production.
High spending government is something different.
This phenomenon comes in different wrappings: Feudal, Authoritarian
Conservative, Fascist, Social Liberal, Social Democrat, Christian Democrat
and so on.
As an ideology, socialism deals more with the political basis than with the
implementation. Nobody can justify taxation as a goal, that politicians and
civil servants are always right, that it is a goal to confiscate any kind of
private property. There are some Socialist ideologies that want society to
build upon omnipotence. All but tiny extremist groups have survived. Most
were slaughtered in Eastern Europe.
The socialist ideology was more a visionary romantic one than a practical
political theory. There is a little bit of the rhetoric left (for internal
use) in the Social Democratic parties, so maybe one could call them
socialist. Then there are the proper Socialists on the left of the Social
Democrats. Some of the Nordic still worship Karl Marx.
2.8.2 Don't the Nordic states have huge welfare expenditures?
"Welfare" in this context has nothing to do with welfare as the word is
understood in the USA. It stands for a word (v�lf�rd as spelled in Swedish)
approximately translated by the intention to control un-employment and
poverty by governmental regulation and actions. This is not a particular
phenomenon for Scandinavia, or for recent times, but have to greater or
lesser extent been on the program for nearly all parties ruling in the
industrialized Europe (i.e. for over a hundred years).
Subsidies to industries have been popular among nearly all parties, for
instance. The health care system, the tax financed school system (including
student loans) and the mandatory participation in schemes for loss of income
at retirement, disability, sickness or unemployment has got a solid support
by something like 90% of the politicians and 95% of the Nordic voters. The
differences regard adjustments, not the idea as such.
2.8.3 But you do pay terrible taxes, don't you?
Also people who are conservative, by Nordic standards, support the basic
concept of sharing a public responsibility for education and health care. We
can discuss the efficiency of the government in running these programs, but
you're not going to convince many Nordeners that the solution to
inefficiencies is to move the responsibility to the individual.
Since the education of the youths is paid for through taxes instead of
parent's earnings, the most intelligent kids get educated regardless of
wealth. This is an advantage for the country as a whole. You can also say:
The educated pay back for their education through taxes.
The same applies to the health care, which additionally seems to be
remarkably cost efficient in the Nordic countries (compared to the US at
least).
We all will need support around our birth, during the time when we grow up,
when we get ill and when we get old. We all need education. Those needs are
as common as our general need for streets and law and order and protection
by an army. All will probably become seniors. In any case, all have reason
to prepare for that. If the preparation is made by individual savings or by
mandatory contribution to a general system is the difference. The cost for
living and health care during your last years won't change if you live in a
libertarian state or in the nanny-states of Europe. The only difference is
the method of paying. Here you pay in advance via the tax system.
The same goes for primary and secondary education. All who earn money have
once upon a time used the pre-schools and schools, and in our society you
pay for it through the tax some years later. In other systems you "borrow"
it from your parents when you use the service, and then "pay back" to your
kids when they grow up.
Neoclassical economists use to argue that the high taxations in the Nordic
countries must lead to high unemployment, low productivity, low rates of
investments and too little incentives to work and innovate. Now and then
these arguments are presented in s.c.n., and regularly the following will be
presented:
The Nordic experience shows that 50% taxation is not too high to keep most
people from working. In the 80s there was full employment despite high taxes
and an extensive social security system. People still prefer work to
unemployment. Sweden could maintain full employment until 1990s, but now the
open unemployment is higher than in the US, although the criteria of the
statistics differ.
The Nordic model worked well till the 90'ies economic depression, but it may
have gotten into trouble in some of the countries now. On the other hand,
one could argue that thanks to this model the recession in the beginning of
the 90'ies became moderated in a very favorable way, compared for instance
to the development in the United Kingdom.
It's often noted that the level of investments in Finland only some 5-10
years ago was very high, maybe too high, and that Sweden has a trade surplus
(i.e. producing to a higher value than they consume) whereas USA has a trade
deficit.
Productivity is relatively high in Norden. Social security does not lower
productivity. In fact U.S. style low pay employment does not have as great
incentives to high productivity as the Nordic union negotiated pay model.
Among the positive sides of this high-taxation system, one can note:
* almost no poverty or starvation, as is the case in American ghettos
* virtually no homelessness problem
* very little crime
* equal opportunity to education & health care, regardless of the wallets
Another example is that if a US worker is forced to have an expensive car
and drive for two hours each way to get to work, spending money burning
gasoline, that shows up as a bigger contribution to GDP than that of the
Finnish worker who lives in a comfortable cogeneratively heated house out in
K�pyl�, doesn't need a car, and rides an inexpensive tram in to work.
2.8.4 Now, when the Soviet Union has fallen, you are free to liberate your
economies!
What often seems to be forgotten is that the Nordic countries have the same
balance in political life as Canada and the US - namely (apparent)
democracy. Nordics have a right to choose whether they want to spend public
money on welfare, health care and education or not. They do so by
participating in elections, in numbers varying between 70% and 90% of those
eligible to vote (unlike the U.S. where 50% of registered voters is
considered a great turnout). Our representatives come from many parties in
approximate proportion to the vote (whereas the U.S. is often
"winner-takes-all"). They enjoy (relative) freedom of speech, freedom of
religion, and (most) benefits of market economies. That's why you'll get a
cold shoulder if you try to label them socialists, plainly state that their
welfare system is broken and needs fixing, that their culture needs to be
preserved from outside influence, and so on. It's a choice, and the Nordics
are doing their best in exercising this choice in a manner consistent with
their values and their culture.
But it is a fact that the countries in the western (democratic) part of
Europe never became "free capitalistic" states as the USA, and Americans see
clear similarities between the western European societies and the communist
ideals.
Some writers use to argue that it's because the US didn't introduce any of
what is now known as libertarian thought, that hardly any countries in this
part of Europe bothered to try them. Or that the Nazi influence scared most
countries off in trying a political ideology other than communism.
It's a misconception to believe that all of Europe was forced or tended to
adopt a "socialistic" policy after the 2nd World War. After the war, the
only thing which with force could have been an agent for socialist or
collectivist policies where the politic, economic and historic realities in
the respective countries. What happened in East could not enforce Leninism
(or related ideologies) in the democracies west of the iron curtain. Quite
the contrary.
An alternative view is that Marxism is a product of collectivist Old-world
thinking, and that it's the Old-world customs which Americans recognize in
socialism.
One outgrow of this Old-world collectivism and stress on homogeneity is most
probably the way people feel responsible for each other, and each others
kids, in Scandinavia. Maybe it's wrong to connect this with press reports on
scientifically determined sign of how unpaid voluntary work is more
prevalent in Scandinavia than in any other part of Europe. But it's tempting
when Yanks stress this aspect of their society as something where they are
world leading.
:->>>
One could say that after ww2 not much changed. The societies were as
centralistic and non-individualistic as they had been since god-knows-when.
Democracy was re-established in the parts of Europe which weren't governed
by Soviet troops. That was the main influence of UK/USA - except for the
economical and cultural.
Liberalism was not at all unknown to Europeans. Nor conservatism. All the
time from the 1848-revolutions is marked by the reaction on the danger of
the urban concentrations of proletarians. Marxism, late 19:th century social
conservatism and liberalism are the most obvious signs. What happened after
the first world war, 1918, was the success of Liberalism with full democracy
in all countries, and then a backlash when non-democrats came to power
either through democratic elections, or as a response to the unstable
governmental situation which the democracy had led to: In short the
political map of the pre-ww2-societies in Europe could be described as
consisting of three blocks. Socialists, Liberals and Conservatives. All
three in opposition to the other two. (The fascistic movements are then
associated with the conservatives, which is true if one regards alliances,
but not quite true if one looks more directly on propaganda and programs.)
The socialistic block was split between reformists and revolutionists. And
in some countries it was the reformists and the liberals who together were
strong enough to compete with the anti-democratic forces.
After the second world war the Fascist parties had lost all credibility.
For the people in the destroyed Europe (well, west of the iron curtain)
non-individualistic solutions were judged as most fit, as typical in the
German sick insurance system or centralized accords for agreement on wages.
I think one could say that most people (sympathizing with all three blocks,
the Conservative, Liberal and Socialist) favored collectivist solutions,
seeing democracy as collectivist. The most individualistic tendencies were
to be discovered among liberals.
The difference between Germany and Norden was not the intentions, but the
different positions the societies had to start from.
Germany was destroyed. The Nordic societies were not.
The eastern part of Europe (if Russia included, far more than the half)
learned to know the Russian masters and their ideology. It was however only
a tiny minority in West who aimed at a development as in the Soviet
satellite states.
2.8.5 What are the differences of the economies of the respective Nordic
countries?
Norway - the oil incomes, the fish industry.
Denmark - virtually none. (Lower beer taxation.)
Sweden - lower income taxes; other taxes and national debt higher.
Finland - the highest unemployment rate.
Iceland - higher inflation.
------------------------------
Subject: 2.9 Valborg, Midsummer and other festivals
(in production)
2.9.1 Valborg
Val Davies <[email protected]> wrote:
I recently came across a reference to an occasion called "Valborg" and on
looking it up in the dictionary find that it apparently translates into
English as "Walpurgis Night". I confess to being none the wiser. :-(
[ Henrik Ernoe: ]
Valborg is the Scandinavian name for the Catholic Saint Walpurgis. Walpurgis
is believed to be the patron of witches (this is of course not certified by
the Church). Her day is the 1st of May. Walpurgis night is the night before
May 1st. On which nature was suppossed to be potent. So if a girl wanted to
get pregnant the following year she would go and bathe in a holy well or
creek on that night. There was also a number of magical rituals supposed to
make livestick fertile that were carried out on Valborgs eve.
[ Antti Lahelma: ]
It's the 1st of May. A important holiday in these parts; you wear a white
student cap (supposing you ever graduated), a silly nose (optional), drink a
whole lot of alcohol and walk aimlessly in the crowd downtown. In Helsinki,
one of the main events is the crowning of a statue of a mermaid (Havis
Amanda, a symbol of the city) with said white cap. I presume it's old pagan
festival to welcome the spring; the Christian excuse for celebrating it has
to do with a certain St. Valborg, a German 9th (?) century abbess who
probably did something pious that has nothing to do with Valborg (Vappu in
Finnish) as we know it.
[ Alo Merilo: ]
In Estonia the Walpurgis Night (in Estonian "Volbri��") is basically when
all self-respecting present or past university students who belong to either
a fraternity /sorority ("korporatsioon") or a student society, have probably
the biggest party of the year. The tradition probably has its roots in
Germany.
[ Johan Olofsson: ]
The festival has its roots in on of the pagan rites to honour the return of
Spring. In Sweden the important part is the Eve, the last day in April, when
people make big bonfires and greet the Spring with a lot of singing.
2.9.2 Midsummer
Midsummer's eve is The Greatest Festival during the year. This day huge
phallic poles are dressed in green leaves and lot's of flowers, erected, and
then people dance ring dances around it, and play games and make babies.
It's easy to see the connection with the pagan rite with the purpose to help
give good harvests in the autumn. Due to the heavy partying no-one is able
to work the day after, why at least the Swedish government has moved the
holliday from the real midsummer's eve to the nearest Friday.
------------------------------
Subject: 2.10 Nordic alcohol customs
There are a few facts which often tend to be forgotten when discussing the
alcohol habits of North-Europeans.
The maybe most important explanation for the Nordic behavior is the very
long tradition of mead and beer drinking. At least since the stone age
Germanians have left traces of brewing intoxicating beverages from grain.
Wine was grown by Germans first at the time of Charlemagne, when the Nordics
since long had established our own cultural identity, and still today it's
almost impossible to grow wine in Scandinavia.
Mead can however not be stored. Mead has to be prepared for each time there
is a need for it, as at festivals, and then all of the mead has to be
consumed or it will be wasted. The Nordic all-or-nothing attitude to alcohol
has a plausible explanation in our historic and geographic conditions.
Secondly beer and mead are made from grain, which otherwise would be used as
food. Richness and power made it possible to afford brewing; poverty,
failure of the crops and starving meant "no booze or you'll die!" To be able
to serve ones guests a plenty of alcohol is a deeply rooted signal of
richness, authority and good times worthy lords and magnates.
The holiday behavior of Finns staggering off and on their ferries in Tallin,
Sundsvall and Stockholm, and the Swedes reeling off and on the ferries in
Helsing�r, Fredrikshavn and Copenhagen, is nothing but the traditional way
of celebration for a people not used to wine. Parallels are seen in the
traditions on Ireland and in Scotland.
Wine has become available and affordable outside of its traditional areas
since only a few decades (no time at all compared to the millenniums the
beer tradition has had to root in the culture) - let's see if we Northerners
will learn to use alcohol in a wine-like manner before the good times have
changed and we are back at the home brewed mead again. Other cultures have
had long time to learn a suitable pattern for wine consumption: regularly
but in dosages so small that one will be able to function as a human, as a
parent and as a worker also the day after the consuming - and immediately as
a witty companion and a good lover.
-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- END OF PART 2 -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
� Copyright 1994-96 by Antti Lahelma and Johan Olofsson.
You are free to quote this page as long as you mention the URL for the
original archive (as: <http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/index.html>), where
the most recent version of this document can be found.
|
| 245.3 | Denmark | TLE::SAVAGE | | Tue Sep 10 1996 15:44 | 1319 |
|
-
A Frequently Answered Questions (FAQ) file for the newsgroup
S O C . C U L T U R E . N O R D I C
*** PART 3: DENMARK ***
Index
3.1 Fact Sheet
3.2 General information
3.2.1 Geography, climate, vegetation
3.2.2 Economy
3.2.3 Population & culture
3.2.4 The Danish alphabet
3.2.5 The Danish language
3.2.6 Government
3.3 History
3.3.1 A chronology of important dates
3.3.2 A list of Danish monarchs
3.3.3 Denmark during world war II
3.4 Main tourist attractions
3.4.1 Getting there and getting around
3.4.2 Copenhagen
3.4.3 Zealand and surrounding islands
3.4.4 Bornholm
3.4.5 Fyn and surrounding islands
3.4.6 Jutland
3.5 Danish literature
3.6 Faroe Islands
3.6.1 Fact sheet
3.6.2 General information
3.6.3 History
3.6.4 Main tourist attractions
3.6.5 Faroese language and literature
3.7 Books for learning Danish
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: 3.1 Fact Sheet
Name: Kongeriget Danmark
Telephone country code: 45
Area: 43,075 km� / 16,631 sq mi.
Terrain: low and flat to gently rolling plains
Highest point: Yding Skovh�j, 173 m (568 ft)
Natural resources: crude oil, natural gas, fish, salt, limestone
Land boundaries: Germany
Population: 5,163,955 (1992)
Population density: 119.9 persons per km� (310.5 per sq mi).
Distribution: 84% urban, 16% rural. (1989)
Life expectancy: women 78; men 72. (1992)
Infant mortality: 7 per 1,000 live births. (1992)
Capital: K�benhavn (Copenhagen) (pop. 467,850.
Metropolitan area: 1.4 million) (1989)
Other major towns: �rhus (245,000),
Odense (170,000),
�lborg (154,000)
Administrative units: 14 counties (amter)
Flag: white cross on red background (the "Dannebrog"; the oldest flag
in the world to be still in use. All Nordic flags except the
Greenland flag are variations of the 'Dannebrog')
Type: Constitutional monarchy
Head of state: Queen Margrethe II
Languages: Danish
Currency: krone (Danish crown, DKK). For the current exchange
rate, see the URL <http://www.dna.lth.se/cgi-bin/kurt/rates>
Climate: temperate sea-climate. Average temp. in Copenhagen:
-3�C - 2�C in Feb., and 14�C - 22�C in June.
Religion: Evangelic-Lutheran (91%, 1988) (official state-religion)
Exports: meat, dairy products, fish, machinery, electronics, chemicals,
furniture
------------------------------
Subject: 3.2 General information
3.2.1 Geography, climate, vegetation
Denmark is the southernmost of the Nordic countries. Located between the
North Sea on the west and the Baltic Sea on the southeast, Denmark is
separated from Norway by the Skagerrak and from Sweden by the Kattegat and
the �resund. In the south, it shares a 68 km border with Germany. It
consists of the peninsula of Jutland (Jylland) in the west, and an
archipelago of 406 islands in the east, of which the most important ones are
Zealand (Sj�lland) on which Copenhagen is located, and Funen (Fyn). Denmark
is part of Europe's temperate deciduous forest belt. The natural vegetation
in most of the country is a mixed forest, with the beech most common tree.
However, almost all parts of the country are under cultivation today, and
virtually all the existing forests have been planted. Coniferous trees
prevail in parts of the former heath areas in western Jutland, and the dune
areas have been forested with spruce and pine. Denmark has a 12% forest
cover.
3.2.2 Economy
Denmark is one of the smaller states of Europe, only slightly larger than
Switzerland. All of Denmark is very flat, the highest peak being only 173
meters high. This, as well as the fertile soil and temperate climate, makes
it very suitable for agriculture; about 70% of Denmark's land surface is
used for agricultural production (but only about 7% of the labor force is in
agriculture). Barley is the most important crop, followed by grass and green
fodder, and root crops. Most of the barley and root crops are grown
primarily for use as livestock feed (some, of course, goes to the
worldfamous Danish beers). About 90% of all farm income is derived from
animal products; sausages, bacon, cheese and butter are the most famous
products of Danish animal husbandry. Danish design is world famous. Denmark
doesn't have much natural resources, although limestone, clay, and gravel
are mined in many areas. In northern Jutland, salt deposits have been
exploited since World War II, and granite and kaolin are mined on the island
of Bornholm. Since 1972 petroleum and gas deposits of the Danish sector of
the North Sea have been exploited.
3.2.3 Population & culture
Denmark was settled already 10,000 years ago, when the ice retreated from
Scandinavia. Danes descend from various Germanic tribes, including the Jutes
and Angles who settled England in the 5th century. There is a small German
minority living in southern Jutland and a Danish minority living in North
Germany. Danish is a Germanic language of the Nordic branch, mutually
intelligible (with some practice) with Norwegian and Swedish.
The kingdom of Denmark includes also the autonomous areas of Greenland
(area: 2.2 mill. km�, pop. 53,000) and Faroe Islands (area: 1,400 km�, pop.
48,000). The inhabitants speak a language (Faroese) resembling Icelandic and
some Western Norwegian dialects. Eskimos speaking Greenlandic (a language
based on a mid-19th century creation of a single literary language out of
many Inuit dialects) form the largest group of Greenlanders; the inhabitants
of Faroe Islands descend from the Viking settlers who arrived in the 9th
century and the Irish monks and slaves who also made it to the Island.
Danish culture could be called more Central European in character than that
of other Nordic countries. Important figures include e.g the philosopher
S�ren Kierkegaard (1813-55), the composer Carl Nielsen (1865-1931), the
astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), the authors Hans Christian Andersen
(1805-75) and Karen Blixen (1885-1962), the architect J�rn Utzon (1918-),
the painter P.S.Kr�yer (1851-1909), the sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen
(1768-1844), and the physicist and Nobel Prize winner Niels Bohr
(1885-1962).
3.2.4 The Danish alphabet
Danish has three additional letters compared to the English alphabet: �, �,
and � (see the section 1.8 on the Nordic graphemes for more details).
A question often asked by non-Danes is: "Why are �rhus and �lborg sometimes
spelt with double-a and sometimes with a-with-circle? What's the
difference?" Well, it is a matter of old and new spelling conventions.
According to S�ren Hornstrup <[email protected]> the 'Nudansk ordbog'
(Concurrent Danish) quotes 'Retskrivningsordbogen' for the proper usage of �
versus aa:
The letter � was substituted for aa in 1948 as the token for
�-sound. It is still possible to use aa for � in Danish personal
and place names. In personal names you should follow the way the
named person uses. [...]
In Danish place names �, � is always the correct spelling, e.g.,
�rhus, T�strup, Gren�. Only if you want to respect strong local
traditions you could use Aa, aa, e.g., �lborg or Aalborg, �benr�
or Aabenraa. In Nordic place names you should use �, �, e.g.,
�lesund, Sk�ne.
And from 'H�ndbog i Nudansk':
It is always correct to use � in Danish place names. But you
should know that you might offend the local residents. [...]
Until 1984 the central administration (statsadministrationen) had
to use �, but in 1984 it was allowed to follow local traditions.
More from the same book:
The Danish alphabet has 29 letters in the following order:
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z � � � (aa)
The letter aa is placed in parentheses. This is because it is not
normally used in the language, only in names. Also note that the
capitalization of the double-a is 'Aa' and not 'AA'.
�rhus was among the first cities to adopt the a-ring; �lborg on the
contrary, has been insisting on using the double-a. Since the central
administration between 1948 and 1984 only recognized the �-spelling, all
road signs etc. said '�lborg'. After 1984 when a number of cities
successfully readopted the old spelling with double-a, the new road signs
said 'Aalborg'. So if you see a sign with the old spelling (double-a) it is
probably a new sign, and if you see a sign with the new spelling (a-ring) it
is probably an old sign ... confused?
Surprisingly perhaps, the reason for cities like �lborg, �benr�, and Gren�
to readopt the double-a is not one of internationalization (though double-a
is surely more 'ASCII-friendly' than a-ring) but rather one of nostalgia, it
seems.
The alphabetical sorting is not affected by the aa/� controversy; Danish
person names and place names with aa are alphabetized as if they were spelt
with � (i.e. last in the alphabet), but _only_ when the aa represents the �
sound rather than a 'long a'. Thus, in a Danish encyclopedia the city
Aabenraa and the author Jeppe Aakj�r are at the end of the encyclopaedia,
while the German city Aachen and Finnish architect Alvar Aalto are found in
the beginning!
< A comment from Byrial Ole Jensen: >
This is not quite correct. aa should be alphabetized as � when it is
pronounced as one sound even if it is an "a" sound. So the right place to
search for Aachen in a Danish encyclopaedia is a little after �benr� near
the end of the encyclopaedia.
This is according to official rules for the Danish language which is found
in Retskrivningsordbogen (The Dictionary of Correct Writing??). But I must
admit that only few people know this alphabetizing rule and it is likely
that even not dictionaries follow it in order to not confuse people not
knowing the rule. Retskrivningsordbogen itself places the word "kraal" BOTH
between "kr." and "krabask" AND between "kr�sus" and "kr�se".
3.2.5 The Danish language
This is a brief description of some of the characteristics of the Danish
language and some of the differences and similarities between Danish and the
other North Germanic languages.
How do I identify a Danish text if I don't know the language?
Look for the letters �, �, and �. If you find all three of them, you have
narrowed your choices down to Danish or Norwegian (both bokm�l and nynorsk).
Telling written Danish from Norwegian (especially bokm�l) can be fairly
difficult; you sometimes come across whole sentences that are absolutely
identical in the two languages. The easiest might be to look for double
consonants at the end of words, Norwegian often has words ending in -ss,
-kk, etc. while this is never the case in Danish.
How is Danish pronunciation different from Swedish/Norwegian?
The spoken Danish has a rather poor reputation for some reason. The many
soft d's and g's are often a cause of much amusement among other Nordics (of
course, _their_ languages sound pretty funny in our ears too :-).
The soft Danish d's and g's are reasonably close to their Spanish (!)
equivalents; this might give you an idea about the pronunciation. D's and
g's tend to get soft between vowels but never at the beginning of a word.
On the other hand, modern Danish does not have the Swedish or Norwegian
'soft k' (in Swedish/Norwegian a k/kj is pronounced something like sh/ch
before a front vowel - e, i, y, �/�, or �/�). In Danish (probably due to
German influence) the k is always pronounced as a 'hard k', i.e. like the
English 'key'. However, this is a fairly recent thing; old spellings like
'Kj�benhavn' indicate that also Danish had 'soft k' (only a century ago?).
And also the dialects of Bornholm and Northern Jutland (these areas are
often the last to pick up pronunciation trends originating in the capital)
still follow 'Swedish pronunciation rules' with regard to k (and g).
The glottal stop ('st�d' in Danish) is another characterstic feature. It is
similiar to the non-pronunciation of 'tt' in the Cockney 'bottle'.
Genders and definite articles.
Like Swedish, Danish has two genders: The common gender (originally there
were both masculine and feminine) and the neuter gender. Some Danish
dialects (e.g. in North Jutland) still have all three genders; dialects in
western and southern Jutland have only the common gender.
Like the other North Germanic languages Danish has the definite article at
the end of the word, thus 'a man' = 'en mand', but 'the man' = 'manden'.
Surprisingly, dialects of western and southern Jutland follow the more usual
system of English, German, French, etc.: 'A man' = 'en mand', 'the man' = '�
mand'. It is not clear why one of Europe's most significant linguistic
borders (separating areas having the definite article before/after the word)
is running straight through Jutland!
3.2.6 Government
The parliamentary system has been unicameral since 1953; the parliament is
called the 'Folketing'. The 179 members (of which two are elected in
Greenland and two in the Faroe Islands) are elected for four-year terms. The
Prime Minister can call an early election. For the last 20 years there have
never been fewer than 8 parties represented in the Folketing. Denmark is a
member of the European Union, and elects 16 members of the European
parliament. The Faroes and Greenland, on the other hand, are outside the EU.
Since 1955 Denmark has had an ombudsman, who oversees the conduct of the
cabinet and the decisions of the administration. All citizens have the right
to appeal government actions to the ombudsman. According to the constitution
Denmark is a constitutional monarchy with the legislative power jointly
vested in the regent and the Parliament, but the responsibility for the
actions of the king/queen solely taken by the ministers in the Cabinet. The
Evangelical Lutheran Church is supported by the State as a State Church.
------------------------------
Subject: 3.3 History
3.3.1 A chronology of important dates
800-ca.1050
Viking age. Danes raid e.g England, France and Spain.
878 The Danes get control of northern and eastern England.
983 Harald Bl�tand ("blue-tooth") unites Denmark and Norway as a single
kingdom
.
1013 The king Sven Tvesk�g ("double-beard") conquers England, which remains
in Danish control until the year 1042.
1018-35
Knud den Store (Canute the Great) ruled over a vast kingdom that
included present-day Denmark, England, Norway and southern Sweden, and
during his reign Christianity became widespread. After his death, the
empire disintegrated.
1104 With the first bishop of Lund, Scandinavia was made a separate church
province, no longer belonging to Hamburg.
1145 The Lund cathedral is opened
1195 Saxo writes the history of Scandinavia
1219 King Valdemar II Sejr conquers northern Estonia. According to legend,
the Danish flag "Dannebrogen" fell down from the sky while Valdemar was
laying siege to the the Estonian fortress of Lindanise. He also
conquered present-day Schleswig-Holstein, Pomerania, and Mecklenburg,
and reestablished the nation as a great power in northern Europe. Soon,
however, a civil war between the nobles and the king vying for control
of the country erupted.
1320-32
King Christoffer II was forced to make major concessions to the nobles
and clergy at the expense of royal power, which was also diminished by
the influence of the German Hanseatic League.
1340-75
King Valdemar IV Atterdag succeeded in restoring royal authority.
1346 After an Estonian uprising, Denmark sells its possessions in Northern
Estonia to the Order of Teutonic Knights.
1361 Valdemar IV Atterdag conquers Gotland.
1397 The Danish Queen Margrethe I, a daughter of Valdemar IV, unites all the
Nordic countries as a single kingdom, the Kalmar Union.
1448 The house of Oldenburg was established on the throne in the person of
Christian I and has continued to rule Denmark up to the present day.
1460-74
King Christian I becomes Duke of the German duchies of Schleswig (1460)
and Holstein (1474).
1523 The Kalmar Union breaks apart when the Swedes revolt after the
'Stockholm bloodbath' performed by king Christian II of Denmark.
Denmark and Norway remain united, however.
1534-36
After the death of king Frederik I, the 'War of the Counts' between the
rivals to throne follows. Frederik's son becomes king Christian III.
1536 Reformation. Denmark becomes Lutheran.
1645 Denmark-Norway has to cede Gotland, J�mtland, �sel and H�rjedal to
Sweden in the Br�msebro peace after king Christian IV had intervened in
the Thirty Years' War. Halland is ceded for 30 years.
1658 In the peace treaty of Roskilde, Denmark-Norway cedes Sk�ne, Halland,
Blekinge, Bohusl�n, and Tr�ndelag to Sweden after a failed war against
Sweden declared by king Frederik III the year before.
1658-60
After the peace treaty Sweden continues the war and besieges Copenhagen
for two years. However, after an uprising Bornholm returns to Denmark
and Tr�ndelag to Norway.
1675-59, 1700-21
In the 'war of Scania' and later in the 'Great Northern War' Denmark
tries to conquer back the territory lost in 1658 but is unsuccessful
due to pressure from the great powers of Europe. Sweden's collapse
after the Great Northern War does, however, return Denmark some of its
earlier position as a northern power.
1773 Denmarks obtains the whole of Schleswig in exchange for Oldenburg.
April 1801
The battle of the Roadstead of Copenhagen (Slaget p� Reden). The
British forced Denmark to retreat from the Armed Neutral Alliance with
Sweden and Russia. Nelson was in charge of the part of the British
fleet participating in the battle.
September 1807
The British under Wellington bombard Copenhagen, to make Denmark cede
its navy. Denmark becoms a French ally.
1813-14
The alliance with Napoleon becomes a disaster for Denmark: The country
goes bankrupt. In the peace treaty of Kiel, Denmark has to cede Norway
to Sweden. Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands remain with
Denmark. Denmark also gets Swedish Pomerania which is traded with
Prussia for Lauenburg.
1848-51
After a Prussian-inspired revolt in Schleswig-Holstein, the 'first war
of Schleswig' ends with the status quo. Denmark still controls the
duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg.
1849 King Fredrik VII authorized a new constitution instituting a
representative form of government. In addition, wideranging social and
educational reforms took place.
1863-64
Denmark adopts the 'November Constitution' which aims to unite
Schleswig (but not Holstein) with the Danish Kingdom and therefore is a
breach of the peace treaty of 1851 in which Denmark had promised not to
separate the two duchies. Due to this, Prussia and Austria declare war
and conquer Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg in the 'second war of
Schleswig'.
1901 'Parliamentarism' is introduced: No goverment can rule against the
majority of the paraliament.
1914-18
Denmark remains neutral during World War I.
1917 Denmark sells its three Caribbean islands to the USA for 25 million
dollars (the present-day US Virgin Islands).
1920 The northern part of Schleswig / S�nderjylland is rejoined with Denmark
after a referendum.
1933 Great social reforms were instituted, beginning Denmark's modern
welfare state.
1940 9th of April, Germany occupies Denmark despite Denmark having declared
itself neutral; the Danish government gives up military resistance.
1943 It comes to a final break between the Danish Government and the
occupying German forces. Most of the Danish Jews are evacuated to
Sweden. Local resistance groups perform a number of sabotage actions
during the war.
1944 Iceland breaks away from union with Denmark and declares independence.
1945 4-5th of May: The German forces in Denmark surrender to Britain. The
end of World War II and the German occupation of Denmark. The German
forces on Bornholm refuse to surrender to the Red Army, and Bornholm
has to suffer Soviet bombardment before the Germans finally surrender a
few days later.
1948 The Faroe Islands are granted autonomy within the Danish Kingdom.
1949 Denmark joins NATO as one of the founding members.
1953 A new constitution changes the status of Greenland from colony to a
'county' (amt) of Denmark. Parliament changes from a two-chamber system
to a single-chamber system. By the same constitutional changes,
Princess Margrethe becomes heir to the throne. The Nordic Council
founded.
1972 Denmark joins the European Community (EC) after a referendum.
1979 Greenland is granted home rule and starts taking over some of its
internal affairs.
1992 In a referendum Denmark votes "NO" to the Maastricht treaty which was
aiming for a more federalized European Union. The "NO" shook the whole
European Community.
1993 A new referendum on the Maastricht treaty - allowing Denmark to opt out
on issues like common European currency, citizenship, defense policy,
and police - is arranged and Denmark votes "YES" to that.
Note:
Present-day (i.e., Swedish or German) spellings for the former
Danish/Norwegian landscapes and Danish controlled duchies have been
used.
3.3.2 The list of Danish monarchs
Denmark is probably the only country in the world that can produce an
uninterrupted list of monarchs for more than thousand years. So here goes:
Chochilaichus (Hugleik?) mentioned 515
Ongendeus
(Angantyr? or Yngvin?) mentioned in the beginning of the 8th century
Sigfred mentioned in the end of the 8th century
Gudfred died around 810, mentioned 804
Hemming 810-812
Harald Klak 812-813
Sons of Gudfred mentioned 813-817
H�rik I (Horik) died 854, mentioned from 827
H�rik II (Horik) 854-around 870
Helge
Olav mentioned in the 890's
Gnupa (Chnob) and Gurd mentioned 909-919
Sigtryg
Hardeknud (Hardegon)
Gorm den Gamle died around 940
Harald I Bl�tand around 940-around 986
Svend I Tvesk�g around 986-1014
Harald II 1014-1018
Knud I den Store 1018-1035
Hardeknud 1035-1042
Magnus den Gode 1042-1047
Svend II Estridsen 1047-1074
Harald III Hen 1074-1080
Knud II den Hellige 1080-1086
Oluf I Hunger 1086-1095
Erik I Ejegod 1095-1103
Niels 1104-1134
Erik II Emune 1134-1137
Erik III Lam 1137-1146
Oluf II Haraldsen 1140-1143
Svend III Grathe 1146-1157
Knud III 1146-1151 and 1154-1157
Valdemar I den Store 1154-1182
Knud IV (VI) 1182-1202
Valdemar II Sejr 1202-1241
Erik IV Plovpenning 1241-1250
Abel 1250-1252
Christoffer I 1252-1259
Erik V Klipping 1259-1286
Erik VI Menved 1286-1319
Christoffer II 1320-1326 and 1330-1332
Valdemar III 1326-1330
Valdemar IV Atterdag 1340-1375
Oluf III 1376-1387
Margrethe I 1375-1412
Erik VII af Pommern 1396-1439
Christoffer III af Bayern 1440-1448
Christian (Christiern) I 1448-1481
Hans 1481-1513
Christian (Christiern) II 1513-1523
Frederik I 1523-1533
Christian III 1534-1559
Frederik II 1559-1588
Christian IV 1588-1648
Frederik III 1648-1670
Christian V 1670-1699
Frederik IV 1699-1730
Christian VI 1730-1746
Frederik V 1746-1766
Christian VII 1766-1808
Frederik VI 1808-1839
Christian VIII 1839-1848
Frederik VII 1848-1863
Christian IX 1863-1906
Frederik VIII 1906-1912
Christian X 1912-1947
Frederik IX 1947-1972
Margrethe II 1972-
3.3.3 Denmark during world war II
This section will probably get more material. Actually, this is one of the
regular topics of discussion in the group. But few have yet had energy
enough to write and propose a text for the faq.
From: Stan Brown <[email protected]>
Subject: Yellow Stars (was Re: Denmark during WW2)
Date: Sun, 26 May 1996 12:03:02 -0400
> I also thought that Jews were required to wear stars, but that
> the King himself put on a star, as did many others, and therefore
> that the star identification system of the Nazis failed?
On page 14 of Queen in Denmark by Anne Wolden-R�thinge (Gyldendal, 1989,
ISBN 87-01-08622-7 and 87-01-08623-5), HM Queen Margrethe II says:
"One of the stories one often hears about the Occupation, and
which I persist in denying each time I hear it, is the story about
Christian X wearing the yellow star of David as a demonstration
during the Occupation. It is a beautiful and symbolic story, but
it is not true. I do not mind it existing or being told, but I
will not support a myth, even a good one, when I know it isn't
true, it would be dishonest. But the moral behind the story is a
far better one for Denmark than if the King had worn the star. The
fact of the matter is that the Germans never did dare insist that
Danish Jews wear the yellow star. This is a credit to Denmark
which our country has cause to be proud of: I think this is an
important fact to remember. The myth about the King wearing the
star of David, well, I can imagine that this could have originated
from a typical remark by a Copenhagen errand boy on his bicycle:
'If they try to enforce the yellow star here, the King will be the
first to wear it!' -- I don't know whether this was the actual
remark, but I imagine it could have been how the myth started. It
is certainly a possible explanation I offer whenever I am asked.
To me, the truth is an even greater honour for our country than
the myth."
From: Henrik Ernoe <[email protected]>
Subject: Re: Denmark during WW2
Date: Thu, 23 May 1996 11:14:42 +0100
> If the Germans were mere occupiers, why did
> they sanction the destruction of the Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen?
First of all, the bombing of tivoli was a "Schalburgtage" committed by
Danish Nazies not but the Germans, and it happenened after august 43, were
the Danish government demissioned and the "peaceful" occupation and
collaboration ended.
> But they did they effectively steal all of the Danish gold
> reserves to finance their own war effort and bankrupt the
> Danish treasury?
The germans did not steal the Danish gold reserves. The base for this story
is the system with "clearing-accounts" in the National bank. The system
worked as follows: When the German wanted to "buy" butter, bacon, guns, or
whatever in DK, they paid with vouchers which the sellers would take to
national bank to get their money. The Danish National bank then paid from
the "clearing-account", which was then supposed to be repaid by the Germans,
this however never happened (the account still amounts to several billions
in 1996).
That the Germans plundered DK this way is true, that they stole the gold
reserves is not!
A lot of the stories are inaccurate or untrue and tend to polish the Danish
image, which in view of the Governments acts from April 9th 1940 to 29
August 1943 is deeply tarnished by a policy of collaboration with Nazi
Germany.
There are things to proud of in Danish WWII history but the policy of the
government and political establishment until 43 is not one of them.
It should never be forgotten that until 29 August 1943 the Danish government
did all it could to hinder sabotage and other acts of resistance. And the
greatest danger to the resistence was the Danish police not the Gestapo!
When agents (Danes) from from the british SOE were parachuted into DK, it
was the Danish police that hunted them down and murdered Rottb�ll and his
comrades!
What saved our honor as a nation was the acts of a few people defying not
only the Germans but also the Danish King, government and all the lawful
authorities.
------------------------------
Subject: 3.4 Main tourist attractions
<by Jens Chr. Madsen, except for the part on Copenhagen>
3.4.1 Getting there and getting around
Copenhagen Airport has a large number of connections to destinations within
the Nordic Countries and the rest of the world. Numerous ferries connect
Denmark to Britain, Norway, Sweden, Poland, and Germany; and of course there
is also a "land connection" from Germany. There are several daily direct
trains to Denmark from Germany and Sweden. Due to the country's modest size
and general topography it is easy to get around in Denmark, be it by
bicycle, car, or public transportation.
Denmark is an almost ideal country for cyclists: Relatively short distances,
practically no steep roads, and a dense network of bike paths and small
country roads. Even large cities are bicycle-friendly (compared to many
other countries at least) with bike paths on most major streets. The reason
for this, of course, is that a significant number of Danes from all groups
of society commute by bicycle.
There is not much to be said about traveling by car in Denmark, except that
you should be aware of the large number of bicycles, as mentioned above.
*Please* be careful and look for bicycles, especially when you make a right
turn. Apart from that, the most special thing about driving a car in Denmark
is that you will have to get on a ferry if you intend to travel between the
western (Jutland, Funen) and eastern (Sealand, Lolland, Falster) parts of
the country. The shortest and busiest crossing is between Halsskov on
Sealand and Knudshoved on Funen. That crossing will be replaced by a
bridge-tunnel system in a few years (train connection to open in 1996).
There are also a number of ferries between Sealand and Jutland -
Ebeltoft-Odden is the shortest and most frequent.
Traveling by air in Denmark is also possible of course; all domestic flights
go to/from Copenhagen and none of them is longer than 45 minutes. You do
save some time, but often at a rather high price. However, there are often
some good offers during the summer holiday period, so especially if you are
going to Bornholm, Billund or �lborg from Copenhagen, flying there might be
worth considering.
Otherwise, public long-distance traveling is done by train (there are,
however, a few coach lines from Copenhagen to �rhus, �lborg, and
Fjerritslev; 2-3 departures per day and prices approximately as for the
train). There is an hourly intercity train service connecting cities on "the
main line" from Copenhagen via Odense and �rhus to �lborg. Intercity
services to other larger cities in Jutland normally run every two hours.
(The intercity trains are transferred on the ferry between Sealand and
Funen. The concept of putting a passenger train on a ferry is possibly
unique to Denmark; international trains from Copenhagen to Sweden or Germany
also travel on board ferries.) In addition to the intercity, there are
regional trains every hour on most lines. Short distance travelling is
mostly done by bus.
3.4.2 Copenhagen
Copenhagen's metropolitan area is the home of more than 25% of Denmark's
population. The city lies on the eastern shore of the island of Sj�lland
(Zealand), at the southern end of �resund (The Sound), the waterway that
separates Denmark from Sweden and links the Baltic with the North Sea.
Copenhagen is protected from the Baltic by the small island of Amager.
Between Amager and Sj�lland there was formerly a group of sand flats.
Drained and reclaimed, they now constitute the islet of Christianshavn,
which has been developed as the chief dock area of the city. The harbor of
Copenhagen occupies the narrow waterway between Christianshavn and Sj�lland.
The nucleus of the city is Slotsholmen, or Castle Isle, where a
fortification was built in 1167. Its site is now occupied by Christiansborg
Palace, constructed between 1907 and 1915 as a home for the legislature and
government ministries. Nearby are the Thorvaldsen Museum and the Exchange
(B�rsen), built from 1619 to 1640, with a twisting spire made up of the
interwoven tails of four sculptured dragons. North of the old city is
Frederikstad, a planned suburb built in the 18th century. In it is the
Amalienborg Palace, originally luxurious town houses but since 1794 the
residence of the Danish monarch; a ceremonial changing of guards takes place
every day at 12 noon. Nearby is the massive Marble Church started in 1749
but finished only almost 150 later, and to the west of the church is
Rosenborg Palace, built in the early 17th century as the summer residence of
the king but now acts as a museum. The city's university was founded in 1479
by King Christian I and was re-founded in the 19th century. To the
southeast, beyond the dock quarter of Christianshavn, is the largely
residential suburb of Amager. The island of Amager, much of which is
low-lying and marshy, is the site of Copenhagen's Kastrup airport, one of
the largest in Europe. A gigantic bridge has been planned for Amager across
�resund to Malm� in Sweden.
Copenhagen has many canals, wide boulevards and public parks and gardens.
Among these is the famous Tivoli, in the heart of the city to the southwest
of the old town, a highly sophisticated amusement park laid out in 1843,
with e.g 28 restaurants, music, dance, and theater, fountains, carousels,
etc., as well as more modern amusement park devices. Other parks worth a
visit and maybe a picnic are the Botanical Gardens (Botanisk Have) and
Rosenborg Gardens with the palace. The famous pedestrian shopping street
Str�get starts from The City Hall (R�dhuset), which is an impressive piece
of neo-gothic architecture, and runs to Kongens Nytorv where Charlottenborg
palace and the Royal Theater are located. The pedestrian center itself,
which includes many winding, medieval streets, is a marvellous place to
stroll around, but keep in mind that businesses close by early afternoon on
Saturday and aren't open on Sunday. There are a couple of old churches in
the pedestrian center as well, e.g. Nikolaj Church and the neo-classic
Cathedral. In Christianshavn, be sure to climb to the spiral tower of the
baroque Vor Frelsers Kirke (Our Saviour's Church) for a great view.
While you're in Christianshavn you may want to visit the "alternative city"
of Christiania. The story of Christiania began in 1971 when a large number
of hippies took over the abandoned military barracks in B�dmanstr�des
Kaserne; after futile attempts by police to empty the area, the matter ended
up in the parliament and Christiania got political exemption and acceptance
as a "social experiment" in return for agreeing to pay for the use of water
and electricity. After many colourful struggles against threats of closing
and "normalization" as well as hard drugs and violent motorcycle gangs,
Christiania's tale still continues. The Freetown's self-government is
arranged in an anarchist fashion, with common decisions being made in
various councils such as the Common Meeting, The Economy Meeting, The House
Meeting, etc. Christiania has no laws, but there's a series of bans put up
by the inhabitants of the Freetown: no hard drugs, no weapons, no violence,
no trading with buildings or residential areas. Christiania is probably best
known to the outside world for the free availability of cannabis products;
they are indeed being openly sold on the main street, but this does not mean
hash is legal in Denmark, or that you can't be punished for carrying or
using it. The Danish police have a policy of not fining for small amounts of
cannabis and for the most part tolerate the trade in Christiania, but they
do sometimes patrol the area. Tourists should think twice before abusing the
liberal attitudes and good will of the Danish officials. Also, don't take
photos of Christiania or Christianians, they won't like it and you may have
your film taken from you if do.
Legal intoxicants can be tried out by taking a guided excursion to the two
major Danish breweries, Carlsberg and Tuborg. Tuborg is located in the
suburb of Hellerup in northern Copenhagen, Strandvejen 54, excursions are
Monday-Friday 10 a.m, 12.30 and 2.30 p.m. Carlsberg breweries are at Ny
Carlsbergvej (at the Elephant Gate; take bus 16 from R�dhuspladsen toward
Sydhavn), excursions Monday-Friday at 11 a.m and 2 p.m. Carlsberg has always
been a major patron of the arts in Denmark, and the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek
(near the Tivoli gardens), which houses a collection of antique artifacts as
well as French and Danish art, is well worth a visit. Nyhavn canal close to
Kongens Nytorv square is a popular place to walk around; there's also a
H.C.Andersen exhibition at Nyhavn 69. Statens Museum f�r Kunst (S�lvgade
48-50) is the Danish National Gallery; European masters and Danish art.
Nationalmuseet (National Museum) has, among other things, a splendid
collection of unique prehistoric finds (rich, well-preserved bronze age
bog-finds, the Gundestrup Cauldron, the Solvagn, Viking age gold treasures,
etc) and an exhibition of Eskimo culture. North of Copenhagen lies
Frilandsmuseet: open air museum of the history of folk architecture in
Denmark and the formerly Danish part of Sweden (Sk�ne) - it can be accessed
by train or bus.
Copenhagen will hold the title of European Capital of Culture in the year
1996, which means that there'll be a lot of things going on in the city. The
organizing committee has set up a site on the WWW, which you may want to
check: <http://info.denet.dk/cph96/>.
3.4.3 Zealand and surrounding islands
<From: Durant Imboden>
* Hiller�d: Frederiksborg Castle
* Roskilde: the cathedral and, as long as you're there, the Viking Ship
Museum.
* Louisiana art museum has excellent collections of modern art, while Ny
Carlsberg Glyptotek concentrates on older sculpture and painting.
* The view from the top of the City Hall (Radhuset) is not to be missed.
3.4.4 Bornholm
<From: Durant Imboden>
* Bornholm: an island in the Baltic, easily reached by overnight ferry
from the Copenhagen waterfront. Well worth a few days--or even a week,
if you're in a mood for leisurely exploration. (There's also a ferry
from Bornholm to Sweden, making Bornholm a convenient stopover on a
tour through Scandinavia.)
3.4.5 Fyn and surrounding islands
* Odense, the largest town of Fyn, has Hans Christian Andersen's
birthplace [someone could add something here]
3.4.6 Jutland
Compared to Sealand and Copenhagen, Jutland has not many castles etc. to
offer. Jutland's main asset is nature, which spans a wide spectrum from
lakes, hills, and forests (very like the landscape of Sealand and Funen) to
heaths, moors, marsh and dunes, unique to the Jutland landscape. Some of
Europe's finest beaches are found on Jutland's North Sea coast.
Here is a brief description of some of the attractions in Jutland - going
from south to north.
* S�nderjylland:
This part of the country was the northern part of the duchy of
Schleswig - a Danish "dominion". It was ceded from 1864 to 1920 (see
history section) and became re-unified with Denmark after a referendum.
Close to S�nderborg, the windmill and embankments of Dybb�l is part of
the national heritage. It was here that Denmark was defeated in the
1864 war against Austria and Prussia. Further west, the marshlands and
dikes form a unique landscape with an abundant bird life. The islands
of R�m� and Fan� are popular resorts.
* Vejle and the Jelling Stones:
In south-east Jutland the city of Vejle is a good starting point for an
excursion. On both sides of the Vejle Fjord there are beautiful beech
forests with some (for Danish conditions) unusually steep hills. The
train from Vejle to Jelling will take you through the Grejs Valley;
again with some unusually hilly terrain and beautiful forests. In the
village of Jelling the "Birth Certificate" of Denmark can be studied:
Two large stones with runic inscriptions set by King Harald Bl�tand for
his father Gorm den Gamle (Gorm the Old) and his mother Thyra. The
inscriptions on the stones are some of the oldest known writings in
"Danish" translating approximately as: "Harald had this stone made, for
his father Gorm and his mother Thyra; the Harald who united all of
Denmark and Norway and christianized the Danes". Two large burial
mounds adjacent to the stones are popularly believed to be the graves
of Gorm and Thyra.
* Billund:
About 28 km west of Vejle is the small (but world famous) town of
Billund - home to the Lego factories and Legoland. It's not just for
kids. The centerpiece is "Miniland", a great many models of cities,
palaces, and harbors, all made of Legos and constructed in scale of
20-to-1. The Amalienborg Palace is there, and Bavaria's Neuschwandstein
Castle, and a Dutch town, and a Norwegian fishing village, and an oil
refinery, and trains, and Mount Rushmore, and the U.S. Capitol, and
zebras, and rabbits, and much more. Many of the exhibits have moving
parts: boats are drawn up into dry dock, trucks pick up loads, bridges
rise and fall, and so on. The DSB (state railway) sells a very
attractively priced ticket at the central train station in Copenhagen:
DKK 344 round trip (as of May 1994), including transfer to the
Vejle-Billund bus and admission to the park.
The town also has Denmark's second largest airport with many European
connections. "Museum Center Billund" houses a collection of vintage
cars and aircraft.
* "Lake District":
Further north-east you enter the "Jutland Highlands" and the "Lake
District" - the area between Horsens, Silkeborg, and Skanderborg. The
world's oldest still-operating paddle steamer will take you on a
sightseeing tour of the lakes. On the southern shore of one of the
lakes is "Sky Mountain" (Himmel-bjerget), so named for its astonishing
height -- 147 meters! There is a nice look-out from the tower on top of
Himmelbjerget.
* �rhus:
North-east of the Lake District is �rhus, Denmark's second city, which
offers a wide range of things worth seeing.
The Moesgaard Museum is located in a forest some 15 km south of the
city center (bus #6) and it gives a splendid display of prehistoric
Denmark. The museum's main attraction is the Grauballe Man, a ~2000
year old body found in a bog in eastern Jutland in 1952. Also in the
city center you will find museums, e.g. the Museum of Natural History
and the Museum of Art, both located in the southern part of the
university campus (which BTW is well worth visiting in its own right).
You will also find lots of restaurants, cafes, places with live music
etc. The concert hall (Musikhuset) opposite the City Hall was completed
in 1982 and is home to the Jutland Opera and the �rhus Symphony
Orchestra.
The university campus is both a beautiful park and a good example of
Danish architecture (by Danish architect C.F.M�ller). The university is
an architectural unity where there is no random mixing of different
styles as at many other campuses; the same simple (some might say
barren) design with yellow bricks has been maintained right from the
first buildings of the 1930's to present-day new constructions.
�rhus' main attraction, however, has to be the museum "The Old Town"
(Den Gamle By). This is a collection of old houses from all over
Denmark, carefully dismantled at their original sites and re-erected at
this open-air museum adjacent to the Botanical Gardens, within walking
distance from the city center.
* The "Mid West":
In the central and western parts of Jutland you find the infertile moor
which is probably the closest Denmark has to a "wilderness". In late
summer the purple heather provides a nice setting for a long hike. Last
century large parts of the moor were converted into plantations and
farmland. This was a consequence of the defeat in the war in 1864; the
pioneer of moor plantation E. M. Dalgas put it like this
(approximately): "What was lost abroad must be won at home".
West of Viborg there are two old chalk mines (Daugbjerg and M�nsted)
with guided tours. Further west there is an open-air museum at Hjerl
Hede with a display of iron age life. At the west coast the large
lagoon Ringk�bing Fjord is home to a bird sanctuary - Tipperne. Also
the tongue of land separating the Fjord from the North Sea is a popular
resort.
* The Limfjord and Himmerland:
The western part of the Limfjord is great for yachting. The island of
Mors in the Limfjord has many splendid landscapes, e.g., the cliff of
Hanklit at the northern part of the island. The porous clay (called
mo-ler) of this cliff consists of zillions of fossilized diatomers, and
this type of clay is not found anywhere else in the World. Another
large bird sanctuary can be found at Bygholm Vejle 20 km east of the
city of Thisted. This marshland is a result of a failed draining
project, and the would- have- been farmland is now left in a "neither
land nor fjord" state. Close to the city Hobro between �rhus and �lborg
you find the remains of a circular Viking fort called "Fyrkat". A
Viking house has been rebuilt there as accurately as possible.
In the middle of Himmerland (the landscape between Hobro and �lborg)
the Rold Forest and the Rebild Hills (Rebild Bakker) are found. Every
year, the beautiful hills at Rebild are home to what is said to be the
largest 4th of July celebration outside the USA. There is also a small
museum showing aspects of life of Danish immigrants in the USA in the
19th century.
* �lborg and N�rresundby:
Like �rhus, the city of �lborg at the eastern part of the Limfjord
provides lots of city entertainment like bars, restaurants, museums, a
zoo and an amusement park. On the northern side of the Limfjord in
N�rresundby is one of Scandinavia's largest Viking burial sites, the
"Lindholm Hills" (Lindholm H�je). The remains of a big town from
600-1100 AD have been found.
For more information on �lborg have a look at:
<http://www.iesd.auc.dk/general/aalborg_guide.html>.
* North of the Limfjord - Vendsyssel:
As mentioned, the west coast of Jutland is more or less one long beach.
Especially the beaches of northern Jutland - facing the Skagerrak - are
excellent. But treat the ocean with respect; each year people
unfamiliar with the North Sea do silly things like drifting to sea on
air mattresses etc. Also, the surf and current can be strong some days.
The resorts of Blokhus and L�kken are among the most popular (and thus
the most crowded) in Scandinavia. L�kken offers a range of hotels and
camp grounds as well as restaurants and some night life.
Further north, the small hamlet of L�nstrup is a scaled-down version of
L�kken; however, the coast line is somewhat different with rather steep
slopes and cliffs. Just south of L�nstrup there is an old light-house
at Rubjerg Knude. The lighthouse was abandoned in 1968 when the sand
dunes grew taller than the lighthouse itself. Some years ago it was
converted into a museum with displays on the problems of sand
migration, but it will now have to close because of ... yes, sand
migration.
The city of Hirtshals is one of Denmark's most important fishing ports
and a gateway to Norway with ferries to Kristiansand and Oslo. In 1981
a large North Sea research center was built, housing a lot of Denmark's
fishing research. The center also houses the North Sea Museum - a nice
exhibition and aquarium (including seals), situated close to the
highway leading to the ferry terminal. The Hj�rring-Hirtshals railway
also stops at the North Sea Center.
The coast line between Hirtshals and Skagen also has some excellent
beaches, which are generally much less crowded than the ones in Blokhus
or L�kken. Approaching Skagen, one passes the migrating dune of
"R�bjerg Mile". It is the largest of its kind in northern Europe and
gives you a small-scale Sahara feeling. The dune migrates a distance of
8-10 m per year. Also, between R�bjerg Mile and Skagen you will find
"the buried church"; a church abandoned due to problems with sand
migration.
Skagen at the very top of Denmark was probably the first Danish holiday
resort. In the last century it became popular with a school of
Scandinavian painters, who were attracted to Skagen because of the
special light and reflections the two seas (Skagerrak and Kattegat)
give. (If the weather conditions are right you can see waves from the
two seas engage in a head-on collision off the tip of Grenen.) The
Museum of Skagen houses a fine collection of the work of the Skagen
painters. Another - partly outdoor - museum "Skagens Fortidsminder"
gives a good impression of the local culture and history, which is
almost 100% based on fishing.
Approximately 40 km south of Skagen is the city of Frederikshavn, naval
base and home to Denmark's ice breakers. Frederikshavn has ferry
connections to Larvik, Oslo, and Moss (Norway) and to G�teborg
(Sweden).
------------------------------
Subject: 3.5 Danish literature
Skaldic poetry in the Danish language no doubt existed already in before the
Viking age, but none of it was written down except for some Latinized
versions later rendered by Saxo Grammaticus. Saxo's Gesta Danorum (History
of the Danes), which recounts the history of Denmark up to 1186 and includes
Danish versions (in a somewhat Christianized form) the Scandinavian myths
and sagas, including the earliest version of the Hamlet story, is the first
major Danish contribution to world literature. In the middle ages also a
large number of religious poetry in Latin was written, as well as a great
variety of folk ballads in Danish, which are among the more significant
achievements of medieval Danish literature. German influence remained
strong, however, up until the Reformation, and only in the 1600's did Danish
poets really start writing in their own language.
In the early 18th century the French Enlightenment and English rationalism
started to influence Danish literary circles, and satires became
fashionable. As a result, the Danish drama was created by Ludvig Holberg
(born in Norway), whose joyous and witty comedies had an enormous impact on
all Scandinavian playwrights of the following generations. Holberg may
perhaps be called the father of modern Danish literature.
In the latter half of 18th century, Johannes Ewald, a writer of lyric poetry
and heroic tragedies written in verse, was the foremost of Danish authors.
In the early 19th century Adam Oehlenschlager introduced Romanticism in
Denmark, while Steen Steensen Blicher represented bleak, Danish realism.
Among their contemporaries were the two perhaps most famous figures of
Danish literature throughout the ages: the fairy tale writer Hans Christian
Andersen (1805-75) and the philosopher S�ren Kierkegaard (1813-55) whose
influence was fully felt only with 20th-century existentialism. In the
1870's, romanticism was replaced by naturalism, the most ardent advocate of
which was the famous literary critic Georg Brandes. He had much influence on
e.g the novelist Jens Peter Jacobsen, the poet Holger Drachmann, and the
Nobel Prize winners of 1917, Henrik Pontoppidan and Karl Gjellerup.
Major early 20th-century figures Danish literature were the proletarian
novelist Martin Andersen Nexo and the poet and novelist Johannes V. Jensen
(who won a Nobel Prize in 1944). The most famous of all modern Danish
writers was Karen Blixen (pseudonym Isak Dinesen), who wrote her gothic
tales and African memoirs in English. In the 1940s and 1950s, H.C. Branner
wrote brilliant short stories; the poet Thorkild Bj�rnvig and the novelist
Klaus Rifbjerg won fame in the following decades. Among the young generation
e.g Peter H�eg has recently won international fame with his best-seller
Smilla's Sense of Snow.
For electronic versions of some of the works of Nordic literature, see the
collection of Project Runeberg:
* <http://www.lysator.liu.se/runeberg/>
* <ftp://ftp.lysator.liu.se/pub/runeberg>
* gopher.lysator.liu.se ; path: /project-runeberg
------------------------------
Subject: 3.6 Faroe Islands
<From: Jens C. Madsen & Jacob Sparre Andersen>
3.6.1 Fact Sheet
Name: F�royar / F�r�erne
Telephone country code: 298
Area: 1,399 km2
Terrain: 18 islands of volcanic origin, steep cliffs,
along most coasts, pastures in the valleys
Natural resources: fish, sheep, potatoes, whaling
Land boundaries: None
Population: 48,065 (1993) - Much lower today, because of economic crisis
Life expectancy: male: 74.5 years, female: 81.5 years
Capital: T�rshavn (pop. 13,636)
Other major towns: Klaksv�k (4923) (in year 1987)
Administrative units: 7 counties (s�slur) each with several municipalities
Flag: a red Nordic cross outlined in blue on a white background,
dimensions (6-1-2-1-12 * 6-1-2-1-6)
(see <http://meyer.fys.ku.dk/~sparre/Merkid.gif>)
Type: Autonomous region of Denmark
Head of state: Queen Margrethe II represented by High
Commissioner Bent Klinte (until April 1995)
Languages: Faroese, Danish (both official)
Currency: kr�na (Danish crown, DKK). The Faroes issue their
own bank notes but use Danish coins.
Climate: temperate sea-climate. Average temp.: 3 C in the
coldest month, 11 C in the warmest.
Annual precipitation: 1430 mm
Religion: Evangelic-Lutheran (ca. 75%)
Exports: fish and fish products (88% of total export), transport equipment
(ships), stamps
3.6.2 General information
The Faroe Islands consist of 18 islands of which only Koltur and L�tla D�mun
are unpopulated. The largest islands are Streymoy, Eysturoy, V�gar, and
Su�uroy.
The inhabitants of the Faroe Islands descend from the Viking settlers who
arrived in the 9th century and the pre-existing Celtic population. Apart
from fishing and sheep husbandry the Faroese have traditionally also been
netting birds, gathering eggs, and hunting the small pilot whale. These
activities remain an important supplement to the economy in the Faroese
society today. The Faroese have a rich cultural heritage; language and
customs (such as the old traditional Faroese chain dance) are kept very much
alive.
The parliament (L�gtingi�/Lagtinget) consists of 27-32 members. The
government (Landsst�ri�/Landsstyret) has executive power in all local
affairs. The political parties in the Faroe Islands cover the traditional
left-right spectrum. But in addition to that (and independent from that)
there is another political spectrum regarding the relations to Denmark; from
unionists over more-home-rule advocates to republicans. The Faroes elect two
members to the Danish parliament.
These days the Faroese must cope with the decline of the all-important
fishing industry and one of the world's heaviest per capita external debts
of nearly 30,000 USD. The fishing industry has been plagued with
bankruptcies. Denmark has threatened to withhold its annual subsidy of 130
million USD - roughly one-third of the islands' budget revenues - unless the
Faroese make significant efforts to balance their budget. In addition to its
annual subsidy, the Danish government has (through the Faroese government)
bailed out the second largest F�roya Banki to the tune of 140 million USD
since October 1992.
3.6.3 History
ca.600 ?
Celtic settlers (Irish monks) make it to the Faroes.
ca.900
The Faroe Islands are colonized by Norwegian settlers.
1035 The Faroe Islands become a Norwegian dependency.
1380 Along with Norway, the Faroes become united with Denmark.
1709 The Faroes become (technically) a part of Sealand, Denmark.
1814 When Denmark cedes Norway in the peace treaty of Kiel, the Faroes
remain with Denmark.
1880 The independence movement starts.
1940-45
The Faroes are occupied by British forces during WWII. Trade with the
UK leads to economic growth. The Faroese flag is commonly used since
the UK does not tolerate the flag of German-occupied Denmark.
1948 The Faroe Islands are granted autonomy within the Danish Kingdom.
1973 When Denmark joins the European Community (EC) the Faroe Islands choose
to stay outside the EC.
1980s
Good prospects in the fishing industry lead the Faroes to invest large
sums in infrastructure to prevent depopulation of small villages.
1990s
A recession in the fishing industry leaves the Faroes with a large debt
and in an economic crisis. Emigration to Denmark increases.
3.6.4 Main tourist attractions
You can get to the Faroes by air from Copenhagen daily (Maersk Air and
Atlantic Airways). There are several weekly connections from Iceland with
Icelandair. The airport is located on the island of V�gar with a
bus-ferry-bus shuttle to T�rshavn. Also Smyril Line operates the ferry
Norr�na during the summer months in cooperation with Scandinavian Seaways.
The ferry sails to T�rshavn from Esbjerg (Denmark) on Saturdays; from Bergen
(Norway) on Tuesdays; and from Sey�isfj�r�ur (Iceland) on Thursdays (1994
schedule). Strandfaraskip Landsins is operating Smyril on the route to
Scotland once a week.
There is an official camping site in T�rshavn and Selatra�. There are a few
youth hostels on the islands and a few hotels also. Camping can be a
somewhat wet experience since the weather is highly variable - even for
Nordic standards, but on a clear day the views are absolutely breathtaking.
Popular places are the westernmost island of Mykines with its large colonies
of gannets (S�la; sea birds); - on Streymoy the ruins of the never-finished
Magnus Cathedral at Kirkjub�ur, the tiny community of Saksun with its
magnificent fjord and the bird-cliffs between Saksun and Vestmanna. Also,
the capital T�rshavn is a very charming city with small narrow streets and
beautiful old houses in the center. On Eysturoy some attractions are the
rock formations 'Risin og kellingin' north of Ei�i; the village of Gj�gv
with its very characteristic natural harbour - and nice youth hostel. Also
Sl�ttaratindur, the islands' highest point of 882 m is a popular destination
for a hike.
< From: Durant Imboden >
- The Faroe Islands, a Danish dependency in the North Atlantic reached via
car ferry from Esbjerg on the Smyril Line. (It's a two-night trip.) You can
continue on to a fishing town in Eastern Iceland, if you like, in which case
you'll see some lovely and dramatic scenery as you pass between the islands
on the m/v Norr�na.
3.6.5 Faroese literature and language
The Faroese language resembles both Icelandic and Western Norwegian
dialects. It is almost mutually intelligible with other North Germanic
languages - at least in its written form. The written form of Faroese was
established in the 19th century by Venzel Hammershaimb and modeled after
Icelandic with almost the same alphabet. Written Faroese apperared rather
late and at a time when the language was under strong pressure from Danish,
which had become the established language for the church and civil servants
of the Faroes. But when written Faroese was established, it meant a great
boost for Faroese culture and language. Today the Faroes have one of the
highest number of books published per capita. The best known authors are
William Heinesen (1900-1993?) and He�in Br� (alias Hans Jacob Jacobsen,
1901-1987).
------------------------------
Subject: 3.7 Books for learning Danish
Dictionaries:
Gyldendals r�de ordb�ger (Gyldendal's red dictionaries)
Dansk-engelsk, ISBN 87-00-73972-3 (niende udgave, 10. oplag)
Engelsk-dansk, ISBN 87-01-09312-2 (11. udgave, 6. oplag)
These dictionaries are very much the standard dictionaries in use. In the
same series Gyldendal publishes Danish-German and Danish-French dictionaries
plus a couple of others.
They are, however, rather expensive in the States (over 100 dollars the
pair). Persons who are just starting out might buy the yellow pocket-size
Berlitz dictionary (ISBN 2-8315-0946-7), available in many bookstores.
Unlike the Gyldendals books, it does indicate pronunciation, which can be a
help to students. Readers might want to stay away from the Hippocrene
Practical Dictionary, which does not indicate the genders of nouns.
Books for learning Danish:
Teach Yourself Danish, by H. A. Koefoed. Reissued as a paperback in 1995.
Colloquial Danish, by W Glyn Jones and Kirsten Gade
(available in pack of book + 2 cassettes, from the
publisher, Routledge: +1 212 244-3336 in New York;
there's also a London office)
Danish: A Grammar (same authors) (published by Gyldendal)
(available with cassettes and workbook)
A source in the U.S. for dictionaries and grammars of Nordic and other
languages is
IBD limited
24 Hudson Street
Kinderhook NY 12106
phone in USA: 1-800-343-3531
-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- END OF PART 3 -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
� Copyright 1994-96 by Antti Lahelma and Johan Olofsson.
You are free to quote this page as long as you mention the URL for the
original archive (as: <http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/index.html>), where
the most recent version of this document can be found.
|
| 245.4 | Finland | TLE::SAVAGE | | Tue Sep 10 1996 15:48 | 1856 |
|
-
A Frequently Answered Questions (FAQ) file for the newsgroup
S O C . C U L T U R E . N O R D I C
*** PART 4: FINLAND ***
Index
4.1 Fact Sheet
4.2 General information
4.2.1 Geography, climate, vegetation
4.2.2 Economy
4.2.3 Population and language
4.2.4 Culture
4.2.5 Government
4.3 History
4.3.1 A chronology of important dates
4.3.2 A list of Grand Dukes and presidents of Finland
4.4 The Finnish parliament, government and political
parties
4.4.1 The 1995 general elections
4.4.2 The present cabinet
4.4.3 The political parties
4.5 Main tourist attractions
4.5.1 Helsinki
4.5.2 Turku
4.5.3 Tampere
4.5.4 Jyv�skyl�
4.5.5 Porvoo
4.5.6 Other places of interest
4.6 The Finnish sauna
4.7 Finnish literature
4.8 Books for learning Finnish
4.8.1 Grammars, Primers, Phrase Books.
4.8.2 Dictionaries
4.8.3 Readers
4.8.4 Materials for Teaching Finnish
4.8.5 Miscellaneous
4.8.6 Course Details
4.8.7 Acknowledgements
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: 4.1 Fact Sheet
Name: Suomen Tasavalta / Republiken Finland
Telephone country code: 358
Area: 338'127 km� / 130'125 sq mi
Terrain: mostly low, flat to rolling plains interspersed with lakes
and low hills; fells and some mountains in the extreme
northwest.
Highest mountain: Haltiatunturi (1'328 m).
Natural resources: timber, copper, zinc, iron ore, silver
Land boundaries: Russia, Sweden, Norway
Population: 5"004'273 [1992]
Population density: 14.8 persons per km�
Distribution: 62% urban, 38% rural. [1989]
Life expectancy: women 80, men 72. [1992]
Infant mortality: 6 per 1,000 live births. [1992]
Capital: Helsinki/Helsingfors (pop. 501'514.
Metropolitan area: ca. 1 mill).
Other major towns: Tampere/Tammerfors (174'859),
Turku/�bo (159'916),
Espoo/Esbo (179'054),
Vantaa/Vanda (159'213),
Oulu/Ule�borg (103'358) [1992]
(note: many places in Finland have
two names, Finnish and Swedish)
Flag: a blue Nordic cross on white background.
Type: Republic
Head of state: President Martti Ahtisaari
Languages: Finnish (93%),
Swedish (6%) (both official),
small Saami and Romani minorities.
Currency: markka (Finnish mark, FIM).
Climate: cold temperate. Gulf stream warms up parts of the country,
Lapland is sub-arctic. Average temp. in Helsinki:
-9�C - -4�C in Feb., 12�C - 22�C in July.
Religion: Evangelic-Lutheran (84%),
Greek Orthodox (1%) (both churches are official state-churches)
Exports: paper, metal, machinery, ships, timber, textiles, chemicals,
electronics, furniture
------------------------------
Subject: 4.2 General information
4.2.1 Geography, climate, vegetation
Finland (Finnish: Suomi) is the fifth largest country in Europe, excluding
the Russian federation. Roughly 1/3 of the country lies north of the Arctic
Circle. Finland shares a common border in the north with Norway, in the east
a long border (1269 km) with Russia, on the south it is bordered by the Gulf
of Finland, and on the west by the Gulf of Bothnia and Sweden. Most of
Finland is lowland, but in the far northwest (the "arm" of Finland) some
mountains rise to over 1000m. Most of Finland is made of ancient granite
bedrock, which has been shaped and fractured by numerous ice ages, the marks
of which can be seen e.g in the complex lake system, the equally complex
archipelagos and the huge boulders scattered all over the country.
Finland has three main physical regions: the coastal lowlands, the inland
lake system, and the northern uplands. The coastal lowlands extend along
coasts of the Gulfs of Finland and Bothnia, off which lie thousands of rocky
islands; the principal archipelagos are the �land (in Finnish: Ahvenanmaa)
Islands and the archipelago of Turku. The lake district is an interior
plateau of southern central, heavily forested and studded with lakes, swamps
and bogs. The northern upland, much of which lies north of the Arctic
Circle, has rather poor soils and is the most sparsely populated region of
Finland. In the far north, arctic forests and swamps eventually change to
tundra.
Finland's climate shows both maritime and continental influences.
Surrounding seas cool the climate on the coast in spring but on the other
hand warm it up in the autumn.The climate becomes more continental, i.e more
extreme, the further east and north one goes. The furtherst north, however,
has a rather marine climate because of the influence of the Arctic Ocean.
The summer lasts 2 to 4 months, the growing season 4 to 6.
The tourist cliche of Finland as "the country of thousands of lakes" has
some basis; in one count, a number of 187'880 islands was reached (but it
all depends on what counts as a lake). They are often connected by rivers
and canals to form large lake-systems. Finland's largest lake, Saimaa, is in
fact a system of more than 100 interconnected smaller lakes. Finland's
rivers are short and shallow, the longest being located in the north.
Finland has about 30'000 coastal islands, of which the especially the
southwestern archipelago is known for its beauty.
The country is situated entirely within the northern zone of coniferous
forests. Forests cover about 65% of the total area (45% pines, 37% spruces,
15%). Oaks, lindens, elms, and ashes appear mostly in the southwest corner.
Among the large wild animals are e.g ear, elk, deer, lynx, wolverine and
wolf.
4.2.2 Economy
Forests are Finland's most important natural resource, and paper, timber,
etc. are a major source of national income. The granite bedrock contains a
diversity of minor mineral deposits, including copper, nickel, iron, zinc,
chromium, lead, and iron pyrites. In recent years, diamonds have been found
in eastern Finland, but they aren't mined yet. In addition, limestone,
granite and sand are quarried for building materials.
Wood processing has traditionally been the most important economy. The metal
and engineering industries have developed rapidly and today are the largest
source of industrial employment. Since the 1950s large-scale swamp drainage,
fertilizing, and reforestation have improved woord production. The state
owns 20% of the forests; the rest are privately controlled. The chemical,
graphics, and food industries are also significant to the economy, followed
by textile and electrochemical enterprises. Mining activity has decreased in
importance, although Finland still produces one-half of the copper and
nickel needed for the domestic market. In 1960, 30% of Finland's work force
was engaged in farming; by 1990 the figure was less than 10%, and only 7% of
the total land area was cultivated. Nevertheless, the agricultural sector
produces a surplus of dairy products, meat, and eggs. Wheat and rye are the
most important bread grains; other major crops include hay, potatoes, oats,
and barley. Finland's climate and small farms favor dairy and livestock
production, which account for most of the farm income. The problems created
by overproduction have led to soil banking (a policy of purposely leaving
farmland uncultivated) and reforestation.
4.2.3 Population and language
Finland is a bilingual country (with a Swedish-speaking minority living
mostly in the coastal areas), except for the autonomous island-province of
�land, which is monolingually Swedish-speaking. �land, with ca. 25,000
inhabitants, is a demilitarized area which has a flag of its own (a red
Nordic cross outlined in yellow, on blue background) and a separate
legistlation.
The origin of Finns is still subject to a lot of discussion; the traditional
theory is that Finns emigrated from the Urals to Finland ca. 2000 years ago,
but the current view seems to be that the Finnish people have evolved into
what they are in Finland as a result of numerous successive waves of
immigration coming from east, south and west. Whatever the roots of Finns
are, a fact is that they speak a language that isn't Indo-European like the
other Nordic languages, but Finno-Ugric; its closest major relative is
Estonian (but even those two languages aren't really mutually intelligible),
and it is distantly related to Hungarian, Saami, and several minor languages
spoken in European Russia and Siberia. The Swedish-speaking minority of
Finland descends chiefly from the settlers that arrived with the Christian
missionaries and crusaders in the early middle ages. They speak a variety
called "finlandssvenska" that differs slightly from Swedish spoken in Sweden
("rikssvenska"), most notably for its Finnish intonation and some archaic
vocabulary.
In Lapland (the northernmost province of Finland), a small Saami (Lapp)
minority still survives. Their number is only ca. 2500, but nowadays there
are schools for Saami-speakers and the language is considered official in
municipalities with at least 7% of the population speaking Saami. For more
information about the Saami, see section 2.1. The Romani or Gypsies who
arrived to Finland in late 16th century have long had to experience the
prejudices of the majority population, but in recent years their situation
has been improving, Romani language is taught at schools, etc. They number
ca. 5500.
4.2.4 Culture
Finnish culture could be characterized as a mixture of Swedish and Finnish
elements, with a touch of Russian influence especially in the eastern
provinces. Mikael Agricola (1510-57) established Finnish as a written
language. The national epic Kalevala, collected from Karelian oral poetry by
the scholar Elias L�nnrot, has had enormous effect on the forming of the
Finnish culture in the last century, as did the poetry of Johan Ludvig
Runeberg (1804-72) and the drama of the author Aleksis Kivi (1834-72). The
scholar H.G.Porthan (1739-1804) awakened the public interest in Finnish
mythology and folk poetry, and laid a firm basis to humanist sciences. Tove
Jansson (b. 1914) has won popularity with her books about the Moomins.
Music has had a special place in Finnish culture, the best known and loved
composer being of course Jean Sibelius (1865-1957); others include Fredrik
Pacius (1809-91), Oskar Merikanto (1868-1924), and Aarre Merikanto
(1893-1958), Leevi Madetoja (1887-1947), and Uuno Klami (1900-61). Aulis
Sallinen, Joonas Kokkonen and Magnus Lindberg are major contemporary
composers. Hundreds of music festivals draw large crowds in the summer;
among the best known are Kaustinen Folk Festival, Savonlinna Opera Festival
which is held in a medieval castle, and Ruisrock in Turku.
Finnish architecture has won international fame; it is represented by people
such as Eliel Saarinen (and his son Eero Saarinen, who worked chiefly in
North America) Wivi L�nn (1872-1966), and Lars Sonck (1870-1956) who were
pioneers of the national romantic style. Neoclassicism was introduced by J.
S. Siren (1889-1961), and functionalism by Alvar Aalto (1898-1976). Aalto is
also well known as an urban planner, interior designer, and industrial and
furniture designer. Reima and Raili Pietil� are contemporary architects well
known for their unconventional, expressionistic style.
Among painters, Albert Edelfelt (1854-1905) and Akseli Gallen-Kallela
(1865-1931) are the best known representatives of the golden era of Finnish
painting; their styles were naturalism, realism, and symbolism, the themes
often being taken from Finnish history or mythology. Helene Schjerbeck
(1862-1946) was a leader in the break with realism, Hugo Simberg (1873-1917)
was one of the foremost symbolists, and Tyko Sallinen (1879-1955) was one of
the first expressionists.
Other famous Finns can be found at the Finnish governmental website for
Finland information.
4.2.5 Government
The Finnish constitution was adopted in 1919. Finland is a republic, headed
by a president elected for a 6-year term. The president is chosen by the
general electorate (all citizens over 18). Supreme executive power is vested
in the president, who heads the country's foreign policy. Legislative power
is shared by the president and the one-chamber parliament of 200 members.
The government which is headed by a prime minister, is responsible for the
country's general administration. Judicial power is vested in independent
courts of justice. Finland has had an ombudsman (oikeusasiamies), an
impartial public officer whose duty is to handle public complaints against
actions of the government, since 1919.
The constitution of Finland allows freedom of religion, but the Evangelical
Lutheran church is an official state church to which 84% of the population
belongs to. The Orthodox church is also a state church, 1.1% of Finns are
members (chiefly in the east); those with no church affiliation constitute
9.6% of the population.
See section 4.4 for more information about the current parliament, cabinet
and political parties. The virtual Embassy by the Finnish Ministry for
Foreign Affairs publish among a lot of interesting documents also a weekly
newsletter on the web.
------------------------------
Subject: 4.3 History
4.3.1 A chronology of important dates
(for the period 1155-1809, see also the Swedish history section)
800-1050
Viking age. Finns don't participate in Viking raids outside the Baltic.
1155 The First Crusade to Finland, launched by Swedes and led by the English
bishop Henry and the Swedish king Erik (later canonized and made
Sweden's patron saint, St.Erik). By this time Finland was, however,
already mostly Christian so the real motivations of the "crusade" are
obscure. SW Finland appears to have been allied with central Sweden
already in the Viking age, so it has been hypothesized that the
campaign was a punitive expedition against an ally that become
unreliable, perhaps because of the influence of Greek Orthodox
missionaries. In due time, Finland becomes an integral part of the
kingdom of Sweden.
1156 According to the legend, bishop Henry is murdered by the peasant Lalli
on the frozen surface of lake K�yli�. He is canonized St.Henry and
becomes Finland's patron saint.
1229 The bishop's seat is moved from Nousiainen to Koroinen in the vicinity
of modern Turku; the year is considered to be the founding year of
Turku, which becomes the capital of the eastern half of the kingdom.
1249 After a pagan uprising, the Second Crusade to Tavastia (a province of
western/central Finland) is launched and the pagans are defeated.
1293 The Third Crusade to Karelia, a province of eastern Finland,
establishes the borderline between Catholic/Lutheran West and Orthodox
East for the centuries to come. The castle and town of Viipuri/Viborg
are founded to defend the border.
1323 The peace of N�teburg (P�hkin�saari) between Sweden and Russia.
Finland's eastern border defined for the first time.
1362 Finns receive the right to participate in the election of the king.
1396-1523
The era of the Kalmar Union, with Finland, Sweden, Denmark Norway and
Iceland united as a single kingdom.
1495-97
War against Russia. During a siege of Viipuri, just as the Russians are
about to get over the city walls, St. Andrew's cross appears in the sky
and the frightened Russians flee from battle. In reality, what happened
was probably the exploding of a gunpowder tower.
1527 Reformation. Finland becomes Lutheran with the rest of Sweden.
1550 Helsinki founded by Gustav Vasa, but remains little more than a fishing
village for more than two centuries.
1551 Mikael Agricola, a bishop of Turku, publishes his translation of the
New Testament in Finnish.
1595 The peace of T�yssin� (Teusina); Finland's borders are moved further
east and north.
1596-97
The so called Cudgel War. Manipulated by the usurper duke Karl, Finnish
peasantry rises into a rebellion prompted by the worsened living
conditions; after short-lived success, the poorly armed peasants are
brutally defeated by the troops of Klaus Fleming, a Finnish aristocrat
and regent of Finland.
1617 Karelia joined into Finland in the peace treaty of Stolbova.
1630-48
Finns fight in the Thirty Years' War in the continent. The Finnish
cavalry, known as hakkapeliitta's, spreads fear among the Catholic
troops who're used to more orderly warfare.
1637-40 and 1648-54
Count Per Brahe as the general governor of Finland. Many and important
reforms are made, towns are founded, etc. His period is generally
considered very beneficial to the development of Finland.
1640 Finland's first university founded in Turku.
1714-21
Russia occupies Finland during the Great Northern War. The period of
the so called "Great Wrath".
1721 The peace of Uusikaupunki gives Karelia to Russia.
1741-43
The "War of the Hats". Adventurous politics by the "Hat" party leads to
a new disastrous war with Russia and a new occupation of Finland, known
as "The Lesser Wrath", which ends in the peace treaty of Turku in 1743.
1808-09
"The War of Finland". Russia attacks Finland in Feb. 1808 without a
declaration of war; Finnish troops retreat all the way to Oulu, which
forces Russians to leave a large part of their army as occupation
forces, giving the Swedish general Klingspor superiority in force. A
reconquest starts in June and Klingspor receives several victories;
however, the baffling surrender of the mighty Sveaborg fortress and the
fresh Russian troops received in autumn of 1809 force the
Swedish-Finnish troops to retreat all the way to Sweden and Russia once
again occupies Finland.
1809 In the diet of Porvoo, while the war still goes on, the Finnish estates
swear an oath of loyalty to Emperor Alexander I, who grants Finland a
status of an autonomous Grand Duchy, retaining its old constitution and
religion. A few months later the peace treaty of Hamina (Fredrikshamn)
is signed and Finland becomes under Russian rule.
1812 Helsinki, being closer to Russia than the Swedish-oriented Turku, is
made the new capital. Karelia is joined to the Grand Duchy as an act of
goodwill.
1809-99
Finland prospers under the extensive autonomy and more liberal
conditions than in the rest of Russian Empire. National identity and
nationalism awakens.
1827 The great fire of Turku destroys most of the former capital. The
university is moved to Helsinki.
1835 The first publication of the _Kalevala_, the Finnish national epic. It
was collected by Elias L�nnroth from traditional Karelian oral poetry,
and became the most important source of inspiration to Finnish
nationalists when it appeared in its final form in 1849.
1866 Finnish becomes, alongside with Swedish and Russian, an official
language.
1899 Russia starts a Russification policy of Finland with the so called
"February manifesto". After the initial shock and disbelief, a
well-organized passive resistance follows.
1904 The dictatorical general governor and active adherent of Russification
of Finland, Nikolai Bobrikov, is assassinated by the young clerk Eugen
Schauman.
1906 Finnish women receive the right to vote and to run for parliament.
Finland was the first country in Europe (and second in the world, after
New Zealand) to grant women an equal right to vote in elections. The
Finnish diet, which up until now had been a system of four estates
(nobility, clergy, merchantry, peasantry), becomes a unicameral
parliament and a universal suffrage is declared.
1917 As Russia plunges into the chaos of the October Revolution, Finland
seizes the opportunity and declares independence on the 6th of
December.
1918 A civil war erupts between "whites" and "reds", and ends in "white"
victory under the commander . Even though the war is relatively brief,
the casualties rise high because of "red" and "white" terror, poor
conditions at prison camps and random executions of prisoners. The war
leaves bitter marks on the nation, which are eventually healed in the
Winter War of 1939-40, when both sides have to unite forces against a
common enemy.
The civil war increases scepticism towards the effeciency of democratic
institutions, and monarchists in the parliament succeed (chiefly
because the Social Democrats had not been allowed to partake in the
parliament) in turning Finland into a monarchy, and the German prince
Friedrich Karl of Hesse is invited to become King of Finland. However,
as Germany soon lost the World War I, Friedrich who had delayed
answering to the invitiation refused the crown so Finland never
officially had a king; as a result monarchism in general suffered an
inflation. In 1919 Finland gets a republican constitution, with a
strong position for the president as a concession to the monarchists.
1920's-30'2
Finland prospers after the war and adopts a neutral Nordic profile in
its foreign policy, although with strong German sympathies. In early
1930's fascism in the Italian fashion emerges and the so called
Lapua-movement attempts a coup d'etat in 1932, but fails and is banned
(ironically, using the laws the movement was itself most eager to push
into force). The IKL ("Patriotic Movement"), an extreme right party, is
formed to continue the legacy of Lapua-movement, but it never gains
significant support and Finnish fascism remains a fringe phenomenon.
1939-40
Soviet Union attacks Finland. Fierce Finnish resistance surprises the
overwhelming but poorly prepared Soviet troops and the "Winter War"
lasts for roughly three and a half months, causing heavy casualties on
the Soviet side. Eventually Finland has to give in and cede Karelia to
the USSR, causing some 400,000 people to lose their homes.
1941-44
The Continuation War; Finland attacks the Soviet Union with Germany,
hoping to regain the lost areas, but eventually has to accept the
borders of 1940 and, and also cede Pechenga, lease Porkkala peninsula
as a military base for 50 years (SU returns it already in 1956) and pay
war reparations.
1944-45
The War of Lapland. As a part of the peace treaty, Finland has to force
all German troops to leave Finland. Germans put up a fight and burn
much of Finnish Lapland as they retreat.
1947 Paris peace treaty. Finland assumes a policy of careful neutrality (e.g
declining to receive Marshall aid) and realpolitik, taking into account
Finland's geographical location next to the USSR. This policy becomes
known as the Paasikivi-Kekkonen line.
1944-48
So called "Years of Danger" ("vaaran vuodet") when a communist takeover
was hanging in the air. Some leading Finnish communists proclaimed that
the "Czechoslovakian model" was to be Finland's future as well. This
ends in the signing of the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and
Mutual Assistance ("YYA" is the Finnish acronym) with the Soviet Union
in 1948. In it, Finland among other things commits itself to defend its
territory against Germany or any other country allied with Germany that
might use Finland as a way to attack Soviet Union. The treaty
guarantees Finland's sovereignty in the years to follow, but places
Finland in between the two blocs of the Cold War, trying hard to please
both sides.
1950's-80's
"Finlandization" era. Finland remains an independent western European
democracy, but falls into exaggerations in keeping the eastern
neighbour pleased. On the other hand, the bilateral trade arrangements
with the Soviet Union are very beneficial to Finnish economy, which
make possible the emergence of Finland as a rich welfare state.
1952 The Olympic Games held in Helsinki.
1955 Finland joins the United Nations and the Nordic Council.
1960's-70's
A time of intensive urbanization, Finland turns from a predominantly
agrarian state into an urban one almost "overnight". This results in
severe unemployment, and large numbers of Finns emigrate to Sweden in
search of jobs.
1973 Finland signs a free trade treaty with the EEC (a precedent of the
European Union), but remains outside the community.
1975 The first CSCE conference in held in Helsinki. The "spirit of Helsinki"
becomes to epitomize the process of detente between East and West after
the Cold War era.
1987 Finland becomes a full member of EFTA (European Free Trade
Association). A special FINEFTA customs treaty had been in effect
already since 1961.
1989 Finland becomes a member of the European Council.
1994 On 16th of October Finns voted YES (57% vs. 43% NO) to membership in
the European Union; the parliament ratified the result after a long
filibustering campaign by the NO-side.
1995 As of January 1st, Finland became a full member in the EU.
4.3.2 Grand Dukes and presidents of Finland
For a list of kings and queens of Sweden-Finland, see Part 7 of the FAQ,
section 7.3.1.
Grand Dukes of the Grand Duchy of Finland
=========================================
Alexander I (1809-25)
Nicholas I (1825-55)
Alexander II (1855-81)
Alexander III (1881-94)
Nicholas II (1894-1917)
Regents of the period of Civil War
==================================
Pehr Evind Svinhufvud (1918)
Carl Gustav Emil Mannerheim (1918-19)
Presidents of the republic of Finland
=====================================
Kaarlo Juho St�hlberg (1919-25)
Lauri Kristian Relander (1925-31)
Pehr Evind Svinhufvud (1931-37)
Ky�sti Kallio (1937-40)
Risto Heikki Ryti (1940-44)
Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim (1944-46)
Juho Kusti Paasikivi (1946-56)
Urho Kaleva Kekkonen (1956-81)
Mauno Henrik Koivisto (1982-94)
Martti Oiva Kalevi Ahtisaari (1994- )
------------------------------
Subject: 4.4 The Finnish parliament, government and political parties
<From Jorma Kypp�, Hiski Haapoja et al>
4.4.1 The 1995 general elections
The Finnish parliament is unicameral, elected by citizens over 18 every
fourth March (to commemorate the opening of the Estates' Diet by Tsar
Alexander I in March 1809). The President, with the consent of the Prime
Minister, can dissolve the Parliament and call for new elections. This last
occurred in 1975. In the election of March 1995 the 200 seats went as
follows:
Party % of votes Seats (change from -91)
Social Democrats 28.3 63 (+15)
Centre Party 19.9 44 (-11)
National Coalition (cons.) 17.9 39 (-1)
Left-wing Alliance (comm.) 11.2 22 (+3)
Greens 6.5 9 (-1)
Swedish People's Party 5.1 11 (0)
Christian League 3.0 7 (-1)
Young Finns 2.8 2 (+2)
Rural Party 1.3 1 (-6)
Ecological Party 0.3 1 (+1)
Aaland representative 1
Voting percentage: 71.8
Of the new MP's 143 are men and 67 women. The parliament elected in 1991 had
77 women out of the total 200 MP's (a world record in its time), and as many
women's organizations had set the goal as 101 women MP's to be elected, the
result was clearly a disappointment and one of the most surprising elements
of the elections.
The Social Democrats got a great victory as a result of their being in the
opposition in the last government. Centre party, the leading party of the
previous governement, was the greatest loser of the elections, probably
because the party's split-up in the question of EU-membership. The National
Coalition, the other major party in the government, was among the losers but
was much less affected by government responsibility than the Centre. The
gallups lied to the Greens once again and for the first time since its
formation the party stopped growing. Young Finns got their first seats, not
as many as they expected but it's a start. The Rural Party was one of the
biggest losers of the elections; a once significant populist party, it has
waned away almost completely and may soon disappear entirely from the
Finnish political chart as it is currently in deep economical problems. The
little known Ecological Party got its sole seat because of its candidate
Pertti "Veltto" ("Slack") Virtanen, a well-known eccentric rock musician and
psychologist, who was also a candidate in the presidential elections (and
did surprisingly well).
Riitta Uosukainen (Cons.) continues as Mrs. Speaker of the Parliament.
4.4.2 The rainbow cabinet
The new cabinet appointed by president Ahtisaari is nicknamed "Rainbow
cabinet" as it includes 7 Social Democrats, 5 Conservatives, 2 ("ex-")
Communists, 2 Swedes, one Green and one independent minister. The only major
party left out is the Centre, which dominates rural Finland. Cuts in
agricultural subsidies are expected. The notion of Conservatives and
Communists in the same cabinet is unheard before, as is the presence of the
Green (party chairman Pekka Haavisto, who lost his seat in the Parliament),
as Minister of Environment. 11 men and 7 women.
Prime Minister: Paavo Lipponen (born 1941). The slow-speaking, 197cm tall
chairman of the Social Democratic Party was the first Finnish politician to
suggest EC membership, at a time when it was highly unrealistic and
potentially career-damaging (anti-Soviet).
Foreign Minister: Tarja Halonen (SocDem). A surprise choice. Red hair and
onetime Minister of Justice is all I can remember. Unless I'm mistaken, our
first female Foreign Minister.
Minister of the Treasury: Iiro Viinanen (Cons.) The most hated member of the
former cabinet continues to persecute women, children and the trade unions.
He has also gained much respect among some people, which shows e.g in that
he got one of the biggest shares of votes in the parliamentary elections of
all candidates.
Second Minister of Treasury: Arja Alho, a Social Democrat from Helsinki with
an independent mind.
Minister of Trade and Commerce: Antti Kalliom�ki, vice-chairman of the
Social Democratic Party. A gray bore and former athlete.
Minister of Interior Affairs (such as the Police): Jouni Backman (SocDem). A
totalitarian character. 2nd minister Jan-Erik Enestam (Swedish People's
Party), a municipal leader from V�stanfj�rd.
Minister of Labour: Liisa Jaakonsaari (SocDem, from Oulu). Faces a huge task
of reducing the record-high unemployment. Good luck!
Minister of Justice: Sauli Niinist�, Chairman of the Conservatives. Lost his
wife in a car accident earlier this year.
Minister of Defence: Anneli Taina (Cons.) Apparently they decided to make
this a permanent women's job.
Minister of Traffic: Tuula Linnainmaa (Cons.) A nobody.
Minister of Education: the 30-year old Conservative Olli-Pekka Heinonen
continues.
Minister of Social and Health Issues: Sinikka M�nk�re (SocDem) and Terttu
Huttu (Comm.), a newcomer from Suomussalmi.
Minister of European Affairs: Ole Norrback, the Ostrobothnian chairman of
the Swedish People's Party and just about our most provincial politician.
Minister of Culture: Claes Andersson, Comm. Chairman, poet, jazz pianist,
ex-football player, psychiatrist and father of six or more. It's not often
that we see a Minister of Culture who actually understands something about
culture.
4.4.3 The political parties
The Centre (Keskusta, abbr. Kesk) was called Agrarian League until 1965 and
still derives its main support from rural areas covering most of Finland.
Not nearly all the voters have anything to do with farming, but loyalty to
the Centre is almost a family value in the provinces, particularly the two
northern ones (Oulu and Lapland). The higher voting percentage of the rural
areas is an additional asset. The party has a strong anti-EU wing, which has
close ties with Vapaan Suomen Liitto (Union of Free Finland), whose sole
issue is to terminate the EU membership. Esko Aho has been chairman of the
Centre since 1990 and Prime Minister since 1991. Other main politicians
include the controversial Paavo V�yrynen, Seppo K��ri�inen, Olli Rehn, Tytti
Isohookana-Asunmaa, Anneli J��tteenm�ki. The chairman of VSL is the noted
troublemaker Ilkka Hakalehto.
The Social Democrats (SDP) are strongest in Southern industrial towns, also
sharing much of the middle-class and public employee vote. Party chairman
Paavo Lipponen is the new Prime Minister. Other notable names: Arja Alho,
Erkki Tuomioja, Pertti Paasio, Ulf Sundqvist, Antti Kalliom�ki, Lasse
Lehtinen, Kalevi Sorsa. President Martti Ahtisaari, EU commissioner Erkki
Liikanen and many trade union figures come from SDP.
The National Coalition (Kokoomus, abbr. Kok), or Conservatives, presents
itself as the party of entrepreneurs and patriots, winning 90 per cent
shares of vote in army bases. Helsinki and the other main cities are
National Coalition strongholds. While most of rural Finland is dominated by
the green of the Centre, Eastern H�me is blue for some reason. Chairman
Sauli Niinist� and his minions (Pertti Salolainen, Pekka Kivel�, Ilkka
Suominen, Harri Holkeri) are currently worried about a new rival,
Nuorsuomalaiset (Young Finns - the name harks back to the days of the Tsar),
which appears as a more modern, "cool" urban alternative. Risto E. J.
Penttil� is the champion of the Young Finns, while the image of the National
Coalition is burdened by the ruthless know-it-all Minister of Finance, Iiro
Viinanen. Riitta Uosukainen is the first-ever Chairwoman of the Parliament.
The Left-wing Alliance (Vasemmistoliitto, abbr. Vas) is a 1990 attempt to
gather together the quarreling Communist movement. Some splits are still
visible both inside and outside of the party. Much stronger in the North
than in the South, the party gets most of its votes from industrial workers.
The eternal struggle with SDP over trade unions goes on and on. The chairman
is Claes Andersson, psychiatrist and novelist.
The Swedish People's Party (SFP in Swedish, RKP in Finnish) unites the
Swedish-speaking minority of the Southern and Ostrobothnian coasts, from
leftist intellectuals through farmers and fishermen to nobility. The
language issue gives SFP the stablest electorate of any Finnish party. It
manages to worm its way to most Finnish governments, thus having influence
far greater than its size. One of the 12 mandates is the representative of
Aland Islands, Gunnar Jansson, who technically is not a member of the party
as the islands have a political system of their own.
The Greens first entered the Parliament in 1983. Their main concern is the
environment (attitudes ranging from moderate to fanatical) but many
counter-culture youths and citizens' rights activists feel home here as
well. Paradoxically, the nature party thrives mainly in the big cities (the
"Neon Greens") as well as in the Universities.
The Christian League (founded in 1958) owes most of its seats to skilful
electoral alliances which give the party benefit from votes originally given
to other parties. Many of its faces represent Revivalist movements rather
than mainstream Lutheranism. The chairman is Toimi Kankaanniemi.
SMP (Finnish Rural Party, although changing the meaning of the letters is
continually proposed) originated in 1959 as a rebellious (anti-Kekkonen)
fraction of the Agrarian League. The party's electoral success has been very
variable and despite government participation during the 1980s it never
achieved, or much sought for, respectability, preferring to fish the
populist vote with anti-refugee statements. The current state of SMP is
chaotic, but it has happened before and SMP has risen like a phoenix from
the ashes.
The Liberal Party lost its only MP, the party's chairwoman Tuulikki Ukkola,
in the elections. LKP has a history of power despite its small size, but is
facing extinction and is hysterical about the threat of the Young Finns.
The ultra green Ecological Party got one MP, one of the surprises of the
elections.
There are a dozen registered parties outside the Parliament. The law states
that a party which twice consecutively fails to enter the Parliament must be
dissolved, but usually they re-arrange themselves with the collection of
another 5,000 signatures. Among them are three pensioners' parties (the
least of them called Party of Shared Responsibility of Pension Receivers and
Greens), the Women's Party and the Natural Law Party which aims to heal the
Finnish economy by the means of yoga flying. The status of bad old IKL (the
main Fascist party, banned in 1944) is somewhat unclear at the moment.
See the URL <http://www.mofile.fi/fennia/um/> for official government
information (foreign ministry press pages).
------------------------------
Subject: 4.5 Main tourist attractions
4.5.1 Helsinki
Helsinki (Swedish: Helsingfors) is the capital and largest city of Finland.
It is in the southern coast of the country on the Gulf of Finland and
occupies the tip of a small peninsula. The "cities" of Vantaa and Espoo are
effectively suburbs of Helsinki, and together with Kaunianen, form the
metropolitan where ca. 1 million people or nearly 20% if Finland's
population live.
The city is protected from the sea by a fringe of islands, so that its
harbor is almost landlocked. It is underlain by hard rock, which shows in
rounded masses, smothered and polished by ice sheets. Hollows in this
surface are occupied by lakes or the sea, although some have been filled
with urban waste to create new land. Summers in Helsinki are rather mild,
with an average temperature of 18C in July; winters are pretty long and
cold, January temperatures averaging -6�C. A belt of sea ice forms close to
the coast during the winter months,but a passage is usually kept open by
icebreakers.
Helsinki was founded in 1550 by King Gustav Vasa to compete with the
Hansaetic city of Tallinn in Estonia, some 50km south across the Gulf of
Finland, and merchants from several smaller towns were ordered by force to
move to Helsinki. It didn't start out well, however; many of the merchants
moved back to their own towns, the place of the town had to be moved a
couple of times to more suitable locations, fires and war destroyed the town
several times, and plague killed most of the ihabitants. For over two
hundred years, Helsinki was little more than a fishing village, but things
started to improve when the construction of the huge fortress of Sveaborg
started in 1748 on the islands just outside Helsinki and brought tens of
thousands of soldiers, builders, officers, etc. to Helsinki.
In 1809 Sveaborg (the modern Finnish name is Suomenlinna) surrendered almost
without a shot to a Russian army that was much smaller than the
Swedish-Finnish garrison, and Finland became an autonomous Grand Duchy of
Russia. Helsinki was made capital in 1812, the university (founded 1640) was
moved there from Turku in 1827, and the modern growth of the city started.
The war had destroyed much of the old Helsinki, and the central city was
rebuilt according to the plans of the German-born architect C.L.Engel in
grand imperial scale to show the power of the Russian Empire. The city was
bombed during the World War II, but not as badly as it might have because of
the ingenious air raid defense (for example, a fake Helsinki was built next
to the real one and set on fire to fool the Russian bombers).
The Helsinki accords was the "declaration of policy intent" signed in
Helsinki in 1975, by the United States, Canada, the USSR, and 32 European
countries at the end of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe
(1973-75). The accords declared inviolable the frontiers of all the
signatory nations, provided for scientific, technological, and cultural
exchanges, and pledged the signatories to respect human rights, including
"freedom of thought, conscience, religion, or belief."
The most important sights in Helsinki include the following:
* The Senate Square, in the very centre of Helsinki, is one of the most
beautiful neo-classical squares in Europe. On one side of the square is
situated the Senate palace, and on the other, the maiun building of
Helsinki University; above them rises the Helsinki Cathedral (all are
designed by C.L.Engel), and in the centre of the square is a statue of
Emperor Alexander II. The university library is next to the main
building of the university is considered to be perhaps Engel's finest
work, especially the intererior is beautiful. Slightly "hidden" behind
the square is the old House of the Estates, a fine piece of exuberant
neo-renaissance architecture with golden decorations. Ateneum Art
Museum located in the Rautatientori square nearby has the best
collection of fine arts in Finland; mostly Finnish painters and some
foreign masters of turn of the century (the rest of the somewhat modest
collection of foreign art is housed in the Sinebrychoff museum on
Bulevardi street); on the same square is the railway station, designed
by Eliel Saarinen, which is a large and innovative Art Nouveau building
(the main entrance looks a bit like an old radio set).
* The Market Square, in the South Harbour, is a lively year-round market
in beautiful surroundings. Beside the square is the fountain of Havis
Amanda, the symbol of Helsinki. The Esplanade, a park avenue lined with
shops and cafes starts from the fountain; at it's other end is the
Swedish Theatre and the Stockmann department store, reputedly the
largest in Scandinavia, and certainly the best one in Helsinki. A part
of the Stockmann, although located in a separate building next to it,
is the Academic Bookstore which is a must for every bookhoarder. They
have a large selection of books in English, as well as several other
major languages. For slightly cheaper shopping, you could take the
subway to the It�keskus -station (East Centre). The station is right
next to a huge suburban mall.
* On the other end of the Market Square rises the golden, onion-shaped
cupola of the Uspensky Cathedral, representing the other major religion
in Finland, Greek Orthodoxy. Ferries leave from the square to the 18th
century island fortress of Suomenlinna (Sveaborg), once called "the
Gibraltar of the North" (but unlike Gibraltar, never had much military
significance), located just outside the harbour; it's a beautiful place
for picnics and just strolling around. There's also a centre for
Scandinavian art in one of the old barracks, and a museum dedicated to
the man behind Sveaborg's building, Augustin Ehrensv�rd. The fortress
is included in the UNESCO list of world heritage. Tickets to the
ferries cost only about 10 FIM. There are also ferries to Korkeasaari
Zoo, also located in a nearby island. Another good place for picnics is
the Kaivopuisto park, where free pop-concerts are held in summer.
* Going down the Mannerheimintie (Mannerheim street), which starts from
the other end of the Esplanade, you'll pass the following places of
interest: the parliament, which is a massive granite building that
dates from the 1930's (and, frankly, looks like something that Albert
Speer might have designed..). The Finlandia-house, by Finland's most
famous architect Alvar Aalto, built of white marble, where the Helsinki
accords were signed (it's also the home of e.g the Finnish Radio
Symphony Orchestra). The Italian Carrara-marble plates haven't quite
stood the test of Finnish weather, so it might be a good idea to wear a
helmet in case of falling marble. :) The National Museum built in Art
Nouveau style displays objects from different periods of Finnish
history. The collection is relatively interesting, but displayed in a
somewhat conservative way. Also, the museum is far too small for it's
purpose. The National Opera is the next building on the line, it's a
piece of modern architecture finished in 1993, more beautiful from the
inside than the outside; and finally, the Olympic Stadium, where the
1952 Olympics were held.
* You might also want to check the Temppeliaukio church in the district
of T��l�, which is carved into a low hill of granite rock and covered
by a copper dome (architect Reima Pietil�). Take a look from above,
some of the staircases of the houses next to it for example; it looks
like a landed UFO. Seurasaari island has an open-air museum of
traditional Finnish wooden houses, not quite as good as Skansen in
Stockholm or Bygd�y in Oslo, but if you're interested in folk culture
it's certainly worth checking out. Linnanm�ki amusement park is the
largest in Finland; it differs in no way from your average large
amusement park, but might still be a nice place to spend a day,
especially if you're travelling with children. Heureka Science Center
in the suburb of Vantaa is another good place to spend time with
children; it popularizes science, lets you do all sorts of experiments
of your own, and has a globular movie theatre. You can get there by
local train or a special bus line leaving from Rautatientori. Ainola,
home of the composer Jean Sibelius, is located in J�rvenp�� not far
from Helsinki.
* Internet addicts visiting the city can cure their withdrawal symptoms
at the CompuCafe at Annankatu 22 in the center of the city. Free net
access is also provided by an increasing number of public libraries,
for instance the Kirjakaapeli library in the Kaapelitehdas (Cable
Factory) culture center in western Helsinki. The place is well worth a
visit on its own right. It's a huge old factory building where cables
used to be made (hence the name), which after the closing of the
factory was spontaneously taken over by various artists, workshops,
clubs, etc., and after a brief wrestle with the city authorities and
the company owning the building, it was turned in its entirety into a
culture complex. It now houses, in addition to the library, cafes,
galleries, several museums, repetition rooms for rock bands, classical
orchestras, martial arts clubs, theatre groups, etc, and its a site for
all sorts of cultural happenings. Getting there is easiest by taking
the subway to the Ruoholahti station.
For more information on Helsinki, you may wish to check these URLs:
The Virtual Traveller to Helsinki:
<http://www.spellbound.com/helsinki/>
A clicable map of Helsinki WWW-resources:
<http://www.funet.fi:80/resources/maps/helsinki/>
Official Helsinki city information:
<http://www.hel.fi/>
4.5.2 Turku, the old capital
Turku (Swedish: �bo) is a port city in southwestern Finland at the mouth of
the river Aura, about 160 km west of Helsinki. It has several important
libraries, museums, and theaters. The Swedish University of �bo (�bo
Akademi, 1917) and the University of Turku (1920) serve, respectively, the
Swedish and Finnish populations of this bilingual city.
Turku/�bo is Finland's oldest city, founded sometime in the early 13th
century, but not very many old buildings remain because of tens of
disastrous fires, the worst one being that of 1827 which destroyed the city
almost completely. Most of the buildings are, therefore, fairly new, with a
couple of old monuments remaining. Before the Russian takeover in 1809,
Turku was Finland's largest city and served as its capital. It was rather
heavily damaged during also during the WWII.
The city is divided by the river Aura, on the bank of which rises the Turku
Cathedral, the most important medieval cathedral in Finland and a national
sanctuary. It was started in 1230, and it's present shape (except for the
cupola and the roof, which were built after the 1827 fire) dates from late
middle ages. In the cathedral are buried e.g the wife of Erik XIV, Queen
Karin M�nsd�tter (Kaarina Maununtyt�r) and some of the most famous of Gustav
II Adolf's military leaders from the Thirty Years' War (the Finnish
marshalls Evert Horn and �ke Tott, the general of the Hakkapeliitta cavalry
Torsten St�lhandske and the Scottish colonel Samuel Cockburn). There's also
a museum in one of the galleries.
The other major medieval monument in Turku is the castle, started in the
1310's. The castle acted as the main castle of Finland in the middle ages
and renaissance and experienced it's best days in the 16th century when the
duke of Finland, Johan, held his court there together with the Polish-born
princess Katarina Jagellonica whom he married in 1562. Later, in 1568, Johan
imprisoned his brother, the mad renaissance king Erik XIV, and he was held
prisoner in Turku castle. It's an impressive construction, but perhaps not
exceptionally romantic. In the river Aura, there are two 19th century
sailingships that act as museums, the Suomen Joutsen and Sigyn. The Cloister
Hill (Luostarinm�ki) has an attractive collection of simple wooden merchants
houses that were spared from the fire of 1827.
For more information on Turku: <http://www.tku.fi/>
4.5.3 Tampere, the third largest city of Finland
<from: Kari Yli-Kuha >
Tampere (in Swedish Tammerfors) lies about 160 km northwest of Helsinki. A
major manufacturing hub and the textile center of Finland, Tampere also
produces metals, heavy machinery, pulp, and paper, etc. The heavy
concentration of industry has prompted some to call it Finland's Manchester
(the center, with several rather attractive old factory buildings, looks
pretty industrial, too).
Tampere was founded in 1779 and is the largest inland city in Scandinavia.
The location between two lakes, N�sij�rvi and Pyh�j�rvi, and the rapids
(Tammerkoski) joining the lakes gave birth to the industry in the city. The
cathedral by Lars Sonck is a masterpiece of Finnish national-romantic Art
Nouveau; it's frescoes by the symbolist painter Hugo Simberg are especially
fascinating. Lake tours, "Hopealinja" (Silver Line) in Pyh�j�rvi and
"Runoilijan tie" (Poet's Way) in N�sij�rvi, are popular in the summer. A
gravel ridge, Pispalan harju, and the settlement there is also a major
tourist attraction. Tampere has two theatres (TT and TTT) and a summer
theatre with a revolving auditorium. The S�rk�nniemi amusement park is very
popular in the summer. One of the gastronomic delicacies typical for Tampere
is black sausage ("mustamakkara") which is made of blood, though not nearly
all regard it as a delicacy.
Other tips: <from Tuukka Kirveskoski>
* Main shopping street H�meenkatu
* Pyynikki natural park only two kilometres west from downtown
* Take a ferry to Viikinsaari island or a longer boat trip to the town of
H�meenlinna (about 100km; there's a medieval castle there). Scenic
waterways.
* places to be: Amarillo, Night Club Ilves, Crazy Horse, Cafe Metropol,
Doris
* luxurious baths:
o Spa Lapinniemi, near the city centre, about 60FIM/2 hours
o Eden, in the neighbouring town Nokia, about 70FIM
o Ikaalisten Kylpyl�, in the small town of Ikaalinen, 50km from
Tampere, about 50FIM
For more information on Tampere:
A clicable map of Tampere WWW-resources:
<http://www.funet.fi:80/resources/maps/tampere/>
Official Tampere city information:
<http://www.tampere.fi/>
Maps of Tampere:
<http://www.uta.fi/maps/sisluettelo.html>
4.5.4 Jyv�skyl�
<from: Jarmo Ryyti>
Jyv�skyl� was where Alvar Aalto began his career as an architect; from
1920's up until our days, dozens of buildings designed by him have been
built in and around Jyvaskyla, thus making the city famous for its
architecture.
Jyv�skyl� in the area of Finnish language culture it has a remarkable
succession of "firsts": the first Finnish-language lyceum, the first school
for the girls, the first teachers' training college (the seminary) the first
national song and instrument festivals, the first society for the
advancement of public education, the first "summer university", and the
first arts festival.
4.5.5 Porvoo
Porvoo (Swedish: Borg�) on the coast of the Gulf of Finland received its
town rights in 1346. The town lies 48 km northeast of Helsinki, along the
Porvoonjoki River. It's a rather small town with only 30,000 or so
inhabitants, but it's rather attractive and the (mostly wooden) Old Town
still has a rather medieval character. Building of the the cathedral in the
center of the Old Town was finished 1414-18, and the Diet of Porvoo where
Finland was granted its autonomous status as a Grand Duchy was held there in
1809 by emperor Alexander I. The house of Porvoo Gymnasium, built 1760, is
on the cathedral square. The town hall was built in 1764 and now houses a
historical museum; the art collection of the museum is in the Holm house
(1762), included are works by two great artists of the golden age of Finnish
art who were born in Porvoo, the painter Albert Edelfelt (1854-1940) and the
sculptor Ville Valgren (1855-1940). Edelfelt's studio is one of the most
popular museums of Porvoo area, it's located close to the Haikko manor (now
a hotel) a few kilometers from Porvoo. The poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg spent
the 25 last years of his life in Porvoo; his home at the corner of
Aleksanterinkatu and Runeberginkatu has been a museum since 1880. He is
buried in the N�sim�ki cemetary of Porvoo. Next to the Old Town, on a hill
across the Porvoo river, is Linnanm�ki or Borgbacken (Castle Hill, which has
given Porvoo its name; Borg� = Castle River). There are no stone
fortifications left, the only remains are moats that have belonged to
hillfort built by the Danes in the late 12th or early 13th century.
4.5.6 Other places of interest in Finland
�land islands (Ahvenanmaa in Finnish) are a beautiful archipelago, perfect
for cycling, with medieval churches scattered around and the castle ruins of
Kastelholm. Naantali/N�dendal, close to Turku, is a charming small, medieval
town by the sea, where a Brigittine cloister was located (the church still
remains). A popular place to visit in summers. Likewise, Rauma, located
100km north of Turku, has a very charming old town which is included in the
UNESCO world heritage list, and a church that was part of a Franciscan
monastery. The inland lake-system, with such lakes as Saimaa and P�ij�nne is
perfect for a canoeing holiday; trips on one of the many lake steam boats
are also recommended. The mightiest of Finnish medieval castles,
Olavinlinna, is located in an island in the Saimaa, and a famous
opera-festival is arranged in the castle every summer. The province of
Lapland is among the last wild natural areas in Europe; no real mountains
(except in some areas close to Norwegian border), but low fells that rise to
some 500 metres. Good for trekking, but be prepared for mosquitoes.
For general information through WWW see the clicable map of Finnish
resources at <http://www.funet.fi:80/resources/maps/>
------------------------------
Subject: 4.6 The Finnish Sauna
<by Mauri Haikola>
While the word "sauna" (in the Finnish pronounciation, the "au" sound is
like "ou" in "loud") means different things in different countries, for a
Finn it means an elementary part of everyday life. Ever since childhood,
Finnish people learn to bathe in sauna, usually at least once a week. Yes,
they do it naked, and yes, they go in there together with other people,
while naked. This and other aspects of the Finnish sauna are discussed in
the following questions and answers.
Q1 Why is sauna something special in Finland?
A1: Mostly because of ancient traditions. Wherever there have lived Finns,
there have also been a sauna nearby their residences. In the early days of
Finnish history, it was a small wooden hut near a lake, and people used it
not only for cleaning themselves, but for childbirths, some medical
operations and other duties that required a clean, bacteria-free
environment. Today, practically all houses in Finland have a sauna. In urban
areas, you usually have one per building, but even in a relatively small
apartment it is not a rare piece of luxury these days. This being the case,
Finns discover at an early age what a refreshing way it is to clean oneself
both physically and mentally. The tradition is not a dying one either.
Q2 What is a Finnish sauna like?
A2: The basic parts are the stove ("kiuas"), filled with fist-sized stones,
and the benches or platforms ("lauteet"), made of wood (anecdotes of metal
benches in the saunas of some Finnish-built Russian warships are told :).
There are usually two benches, one of which is higher (the seat) and the
other one lower (place to rest your feet on, or another seat if you feel
it's too hot). These are what all saunas have. The modern saunas have the
usual shower and dressing rooms too, but the traditional ones near a lake or
sea (usually in the vicinity of a summer cabin, or built in one) do not
require anything but a stove for heating and a bench to sit down on -- you
can do the cleaning in the lake. The stove is traditionally fuelled by wood,
but electrically heated saunas are common due to their safe, easy and clean
use. The average sauna has room for 3-6 people at a time.
Q3 How are you supposed to bathe?
A3: There are no rules, only guidelines. Finns like their traditions, but do
not enforce them on themselves or foreigners. Usually you bathe together
with your family. If you are with friends or others that aren't family
members, men and women take turns to bathe separately. Most public saunas
are separate for men and women, but not all. You take your clothes off (this
is not a rule, mind you; if someone wants to use a towel or bathing suite,
it's not a breach of any important etiquette), go and sit down on the
benches and relax. The air is not particularly humid at first (there is no
visible steam), and when you feel like it, you throw some water on the
stones to increase humidity. This causes the water to vaporize very quickly,
and it makes the bathers feel a momentary breath of hot air in their backs.
It may be uncomfortable, if the stove is too hot or if you use too much
water, and in those cases it helps to step down on the lower bench, or to go
out entirely. This is also perfectly acceptable, and first-time sauna
bathers shouldn't feel obligated to stay in if they don't feel like it. The
basic goal is to enjoy and relax, and sweat. After you've done enough of
that, you go to the showers, and/or swim in the lake, depending on the
facilities. After swimming or showering, you can go back to the sauna, and
repeat this cycle as many times as you want.
Q4 How hot is it in there?
A4: This varies according to the bathers' wishes. Usually the temperature is
between 60�C and 110�C, the widely-agreed-upon ideal temperature being
somewhere around 85�degrees. Sometimes (after a few drinks) Finnish men
engage in an unhealthy competition over who can stay in a hot sauna the
longest time. This is not the way sauna is meant to be enjoyed, not to
mention that it can be dangerous. Also, you shouldn't be drunk in sauna. A
cold beer after sauna, however, tastes usually great, even a mediocre brand.
Q5 What is a smoke sauna? How does it differ from the usual one?
A5: A smoke sauna (savusauna) is perhaps the most traditional kind of sauna.
There is no smoke pipe: all the smoke from the stove goes inside the sauna
while heating. Of course, it has to be removed before bathing, and this is
done by opening a small hatch on the wall. The fire on the stove must not be
burning while bathing, but this doesn't matter, since the massive stove
radiates plenty of heat for many hours. A smoke sauna is often considered
the ultimate sauna experience, complete with the wonderful smoke odour.
Smoke saunas are somewhat rare compared to the normal ones these days, but
sauna enthusiasts praise them so that there still exist plenty of them.
Q6 Do Finns really jump out naked into the snow in the middle of sauna
bathing and roll around in winter time? Or go swimming in a frozen lake?
A6: Some do, most don't. This is a habit that requires a healthy heart and a
bit of courage, but it is practised, and there are some enthusiasts who
think sauna in the winter is nothing without a quick swim in the snow or
freezing water. Of course, others think this is sheer madness.
Q7 What about sauna and sex?
A7: Even though people are naked in sauna, Finns do not see anything
sex-related in their sauna tradition. Of course you can have sex in there if
you feel like it, but that is neither a part of any tradition nor very
comfortable. Women used to give birth in saunas a long time ago, but the
conceiving was done mostly elsewhere. Massage parlours and other (sometimes
sexual) services that often come with a public sauna in the red-light
districts of big cities are unknown phenomena in Finland. Going to sauna
naked with all your family is not at all perverted, as the reader might
think. Instead, the sauna tradition makes it natural and comfortable for
children to learn about human body, and for parents to tell them about it.
------------------------------
Subject: 4.7 Finnish literature
Fire has destroyed most of the early literature the Finnish church and
monasteries must have produced. The first known Finnish author was J�ns
Budde, a Franciscan monk who lived in the Brigittene monastery at Naantali
in the latter part of 15th century, chiefly translating from Latin to
Swedish, but he also wrote a few things of his own. Codex Aboensis written
probably in Turku in the 1440's is an important collection of law texts;
Missale Aboense printed in 1488 for the Finnish church is a beautiful book
and a source of medieval Finnish religious life.
Mikael Agricola (ca.1510-57), a bishop of Turku and great advocate of
Lutheranism, is considered the father of Finnish literature. His ABC-book
published 1538 is the first known book in Finnish, but the translation of
New Testament (1548) is his greatest achievement. Paavali Juusten (?1512-72)
was another important 16th century author; his Chronicon episcoporum
Finlandensium (Chronicle of the Finnish Bishops) is an important source of
early Finnish history. Erik Sorolainen (1545-1625) did most of the
translation of the Old Testament when the whole Bible was eventually
published in Finnish in 1642, delayed by the Thirty Years' War. The first
grammar of Finnish, Linguae Finnicae brevis institutio, was written by Eskil
Petraeus in 1649.
Daniel Juslenius (1676-1752) was an enthusiastic advocate of things Finnish.
He wrote a baroque study on Finland (Aboa vetus et Nova, 1700) which among
other things traced the origins of Roman civilization to Finland; a defense
of Finnishness (Vindicae Fennorum, 1702); and most importantly, the first
major Finnish dictionary (Suomalaisen Sana-Lugun Coetus, 1745), containing
16,000 entries. He and his ideological followers became known as Fennophiles
(proto-nationalists, but not separatists). Jakob Frese (1691-1729) and
Gustaf Filip Creutz (1731-1785) contributed importantly to the
Swedish-language poetry of the era.
The first major Finnish poet, however, was Frans Mikael Franz�n (1772-1847),
whose fresh, romantic poetry was enormously popular in Sweden-Finland in his
time. His teacher was the great scholar Henrik Gabriel Porthan (1739-1804),
a student of Juslenius and a Fennophile, who brought Finnish
history-writing, study of mythology and folk poetry, and other humanistic
sciences to an international level. His De Po�si Fennica (published in five
parts 1776-78), a study on Finnish folk poetry, had great importance in
awakening public interest in the Kalevala-poetry and Finnish mythology, and
the study was also the basis of all later study of the poetry. He was among
the founders of the Aurora Society that advocated Finnish literary pursuits
and was the editor of the first Finnish newspaper, Tidningar utgifne af et
s�llskap i �bo, founded in 1771. Antti Lizelius (1708-1795) published the
first newspaper in Finnish, Suomenkieliset Tieto-Sanomat, 1776.
Porthan inspired the following generation of Finnish authors, poets and
researchers, many of whom were among the founders of the Finnish Literature
Society in 1831. A movement literary trend known as Helsinki Romanticism was
born in the 1830's when the university was moved to the new capital. Four
young university students came to have towering importance to the forming of
the Finnish literature, and ultimately, the Finnish national identity. These
were the poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg (1804-77), the scholar Elias L�nnrot
(1802-84), the author Zachris Topelius (1818-1898) and the Hegelian
philosopher and statesman Johan Vilhelm Snellman (1806-81).
Especially important was Elias L�nnrot (1802-84), who did a huge task of
collecting folk poetry from the remote wildernesses of Karelia, and
compiling these to what was to become Finland's national epic, the Kalevala.
(1849). It is composed of 50 poems (sometimes called runes), altogether
22,795 verses. The book starts with a creation-myth, then goes on to recount
the deeds and adventures of the three protagonists, V�in�m�inen the magician
and bard, Ilmarinen the smith, and Lemmink�inen the wanton loverboy and
warrior, and ends with the introduction of Christianity to Finland. L�nnrot
was under the influence of Homeric ideals and tried to forge the poems into
a single epic, adding bits and pieces of his own and altering some parts to
make them appear a whole, which they however never have been. Nevertheless,
its role to the development of Finnish literature, arts and identity can
hardly be over-estimated, and having been translated to all major world
languages and lots of minor ones, it is no doubt the most important
contribution of Finland to world literature. L�nnrot also published a
counterpart to Kalevala, the Kanteletar, a collection of ancient lyrical
poetry often sung by women. These two books, however, cover but a small part
of the recorded Finnish folk poetry. For instance, between 1908-48 was
published a massive, 33-volume book series called "Suomen Kansan Vanhoja
Runoja", containing altogether 85,000 poems, with well over a million
verses. Kalevala & Kanteletar can be found (in Finnish) at the URL
<http://www.sci.fi/kalevala/>.
Runeberg's main works were the realist/idealist poem �lgskyttarna (Elk
Hunters, 1832), which can be called the first major literary portrayal of
ordinary people in Scandinavia, the Ossianic epic Kung Fjalar (King Fjalar,
1844) and the emotional and humane heroic poem F�nrik St�ls S�gner (The
Tales of Ensign St�l, I 1848, II 1860) on the war of 1808-09, which enjoyed
huge popularity in both Finland and Sweden and became something of a
national romantic symbol. Topelius was a full-blooded romantic, more
superficial as a literary artist than Runeberg, and less of an innovator.
His F�ltsk�rns Ber�ttelser (1851-67, The Barber-Surgeons Stories) is a
historical novel set in the Thirty Years' War, in the tradition of Sir
Walter Scott; he is also well known in Finland for his fairy tales.
Snellman's chief achievement was in his role as a national awakener, the
editor of two newspapers, strongly encouraging literature as part of the
process leading to independence.
The first great prose writer in Finnish - considered by some to be the most
genial - was Aleksis Kivi (1834-72), a novelist and playwright who during
his lifetime was largely ignored. Major works include Seitsem�n Veljest�
(The Seven Brothers, 1870), his most celebrated play, and the comedy
Nummisuutarit (The Heath Shoemakers, 1864). He was more modern and
many-sided in his expression than Runeberg, but his image of the Finnish
people was too "raw" and realistic for most people of his era, and he died
in extreme poverty, suffering from a mental illness.
Minna Canth (1844-97), an energetic fighter for women's rights and social
justice, was a contemporary of Juhani Aho (1861-1921), a novelist and
short-story writer known for his humorous sketches and lyrical, dreamy
descriptions of nature. Eino Leino (1878-1926) was a poet of exceptional
talent, drawing heavily on the Kalevala tradition. His main themes are love
and nature, and poem collections such as Helkavirsi� (Helka-hymns, 1903),
Halla (Frost, 1908) which includes the wonderful love/nature poem Nocturne,
and Hymyilev� Apollo (The Smiling Apollo) are still much-loved. V. A.
Koskenniemi often turned to classical themes. Uuno Kailas wrote harsh,
self-analytic verse, whereas Kaarlo Sarkia sought solace in aestheticism and
fantasy. The personal, abrupt, and humorous poetry of Aaro Hellaakoski and
the equally humorous, learned, yet folklike verse of P. Mustap�� were only
appreciated after 1945. The generation of the 1950s, including Paavo
Haavikko and Eeva-Liisa Manner, introduced new poetic forms to which their
successors often added absurd humor, formalist experimentation, and social
criticism.
Finland-Swedish modernism was introduced by Edith S�dergran (1892-1923). She
didn't receive much recognition in her lifetime, but is now regarded one of
Finland's foremost poets. She was first influenced by French symbolism, then
German expressionism and Russian futurism, and creativee, and she was almost
without exception misunly applied these to her own poetry. Her free rhythm,
strong, challenging images fired by a Nietzschean self-conscience and
conviction of the importance of her message were new and baffling to the
Finnish ' audiencderstood and even ridiculed. Her first collection of poems
was Dikter (Poems, 1916), which was followed by Rosenaltaret (The Rose
Altar, 1919) and Landet som icke �r (The land that is not, 1925) among
others. Always physically weak and somewhat sickly, she died young just as
she was starting to get followers. Among these the most important were Elmer
Diktonius (1896-1961), Gunnar Bj�rling (1887-1960) and Rabbe Enckell
(1903-74).
Joel Lehtonen, Volter Kilpi, and especially Frans Eemil Sillanp�� (1888-
1964) dominated naturalistic prose in the first half of the 20th century.
Sillanp�� was awarded the 1939 Nobel Prize for literature for the book
"Silja, nuorena nukkunut" (Silja, Fallen Asleep While Young, 1931). Also
important are Toivo Pekkanen, who wrote about the plight of industrial
workers, and Pentti Haanp��, who portrayed with a bitter but defiant humor
the struggle of humans against harsh nature in northern Finland.
After World War II, Vain� Linna had great success with the novel Tuntematon
Sotilas (The Unknown Soldier, 1954) which played a part in the healing of
the wounds of the war and is read by almost every Finnish schoolkid. The
extensive use of dialects make the book quite impossible to translate;
translations into English and many other languages do exist, but cannot be
recommended very highly (although I hear the Swedish one is pretty good).
His other major work is the trilogy T��ll� pohjant�hden alla (Here Under the
North Star, 1959-62), a story of the struggles of poor farmers that
culminated in the Civil War of 1918. More recently, Veijo Meri has described
the violence and absurdity of human life, especially during times of war.
Mika Waltari (1908-79) is among the Finnish prose writers best known to an
international audience. He wrote his most successful novels in the 1940s and
50's, many of them on historical subjects; among these is Sinuhe
egyptil�inen (The Egyptian, 1945), a novel set in ancient Egypt, about the
collapse of traditional ways of life and the inflation of inherited values.
It's also been filmed into a dreary Hollywood spectacle.
From the 1960s, social issues became central to the young novelists and
poets. Hannu Salama went through a famous trial for blasphemy (after which
the blasphemy laws were repealed) for his novel Juhannustanssit (Juhannus
Dances, 1964). Pentti Saarikoski was the leading poet of the 60's. Often
better remembered for his for his unhealthy lifestyle, Saarikoski was
nevertheless one of the most genial poets in Finnish and a brilliant
translator of e.g Homer and Joyce. Such younger writers as as Alpo Ruuth and
Antti Tuuri have also dealt with social issues.
The author Tove Jansson (b. 1914) has won much international fame for her
creation of the Moomins, philosophical-minded, friendly trolls who live in
Moominvalley. There are many books on their adventures, e.g Muminpappan och
Havet (Moominpappa and the Sea). Her fantasy world charms with its richness,
inventiveness and wisdom of life spiced with witty humor. The events and
imagery flow freely and uninhibited, yet reflecting the phenomena of the
real world. Another author who has long been very popular in Finland and has
started to win international fame recently is the humorist Arto Paasilinna;
J�niksen Vuosi (The Year of the Hare, 1974), is the story of an advertising
man who gets sick of urban life and escapes to the wilderness with his pet
hare.
For electronic versions of some of the works of Nordic literature, see the
collection of Project Runeberg:
* <http://www.lysator.liu.se/runeberg/>
* <ftp://ftp.lysator.liu.se/pub/runeberg>
* gopher.lysator.liu.se ; path: /project-runeberg
------------------------------
Subject: 4.8 Dictionaries and other study-material
<Compiled by N.O.Monaghan>
BOOKS USEFUL FOR LEARNING FINNISH (Version 2.3)
Many thanks to all those who have contributed and commented on this list. As
usual any additions, corrections, and other comments should be mailed to
<[email protected]>.
This list contains works which may be found useful for learning Finnish -
either whether by self-study or other means. Some works are directed towards
teachers rather than students. Older works are retained as these are often
the ones that will be stumbled across in libraries.
INDEX
Grammars, Primers, Phrase Books.
Dictionaries
Readers
Materials for Teaching Finnish
Miscellaneous
Course Details
Acknowledgements
4.8.1 Grammars, primers, phrase books
Maija-Hellikki Aaltio: Finnish for Foreigners (1963)
A good book to work through, it teaches grammar and
vocabulary in small chunks with plenty of grammatical exercises
and reading exercises. The emphasis on obtaining a practical
command of the language (even if mainly a reading knowledge)
makes it very useful. I think there may well be an updated
version available these days. A new edition is now available. [NOM]
Maija-Hellikki Aaltio: Finnish for Foreigners (1987):
Finnish for Foreigners 1 Textbook
Finnish for Foreigners 1 Exercises
Finnish for Foreigners 2 Textbook
Finnish for Foreigners 2 Exercises
Finnish for Foreigners 3 Textbook
[ There are also 2 cassettes per book giving aural
versions of the chapter readers and listening
exercises for the exercise books. ]
I find these books OK for learning progressively, and the
reference tables in the back are more useful as a quick grammar
reference than Fred Karlsson's book, however there are two
distinct drawbacks:
1. It is very difficult to find anything in the books, e.g. if
you decide you want to check up a particular grammatical
feature or item of vocabulary.
2. The texts are getting a bit out of date (they're quite
sixties/seventies in their topics and attitudes in places).
[Matthew Faupel]
A complete revision of the original 1963 book which
bore the same title, this has long been the standard work
for teaching Finnish to English-speaking foreigners. The
book is slightly dated with respect to language teaching
methodology, but it takes the student from the basics to
a solid command of the language. The 1987 edition devotes
considerable attention to the peculiarities of spoken Finnish.
[Eugene Holman]
J. Atkinson: Finnish Grammar (Helsinki, 1956)
A course in Finnish grammar for the learner. It concentrates
on explaining the grammar and thus contains only a
few short reading passages and a very limited vocabulary.
Michael Branch et al: A Student's Glossary of Finnish: The Literary
Language Arranged by Frequency and Alphabet (Werner Soderstrom
Osakeyhtio, Porvoo, 1980)
1200 items, graded and accompanied by morphological
information. Glossed in several languages, including English.
[Lance Eccles]
Berlitz Finnish for Travellers
Various editions in various languages.
A typical inexpensive Berlitz pocket language guide.
Like all the these guides, it of great help unless you actually
know a little bit already, but then it is very helpful for
vocabulary in various situations - especially menus. [NOM]
Bj�rn Collinder: A Handbook of the Uralic Languages. Part 2. Survey of
the Uralic Languages (Stockholm, 1957) [This may have been
issued separately entitled "A Finnish Primer".]
Although a book aimed at compartative linguists, the Finnish
section contains a graded grammatical introduction together
with reading passages and a vocabulary. I have seen this Finnish
section as a separate pamphlet but without any publication
details. [NOM]
Artem Davdijants Inge Davidjants, Eugene Holman, Riitta Koivisto-Arhinm�ki:
Terve, Suomi! Conversational Finnish in video ( Helsinki/Tallinn
1992)
This is the first attempt to produce an audiovisual
course in Finnish. The course consists of a 45-minute video
(VHS-PAL) dramatization of a trip to Finland, a 60-minutte
audio cassette, and a 140-page textbook. The English version
is a translation and expansion of the Estonian original. The
course was produced under difficult circumstances during the
last days of Soviet Estonia, and it has some unfortunate
shortcomings. Nevertheless, it represents a totally new
approach to presenting and teaching Finnish as a foreign langauge.
Contact <[email protected]> for further information.
[Eugene Holman]
Eugene Holman: Handbook of Finnish Verbs. 231 Finnish verbs
conjugated in all tenses (Finnish Literature Society, 1984)
Modelled on the famous Barrons 201 Verbs series, this
book contains a detailed discussion of all the regularities
and peculiarities of Finnish verb morphology, in
addition to which it has information on the cases used in
conjunction with more than 1200 Finnish verbs.
Eugene Holman: Finnmorf (1986)
An MS-DOS computer program which generates
all the forms of a Finnish verb, noun, adjective, numeral
or pronoun if given the dictionary form. It is thus a computer
emulation of a handbook of Finnish inflectional morphology.
Particularly useful for teachers of Finnish because it
quickly produces neatly formatted full paradigms
which can be saved as text files for further editing. Available
as freeware upon request from <[email protected]>.
[Eugene Holman].
Leena Horton: First Finnish (Helsinki, 1982)
Teaches a very basic knowledge of Finnish with a limited
vocabulary through pictures. There are no grammatical
explanations beyond the translations in the vocabularies for
each chapter. This book was designed for use with children in a
classroom situation. [NOM]
Mirja Joro et al.: Askelia Suomeen (Ammattikasvatushallitus,
Helsinki, 1985-86)
Four slim vols, all in Finnish, and intended for
newcomers to Finland. [Lance Eccles]
Fred Karlsson: Finnish Grammar (tr Andrew Chesterman, WSOY,
Porvoo-Helsinki-Juva, 1983).
Finnish edition: Suomen peruskielioppi (1982)
Swedish edition: Finsk grammatik (1978).
Karrlsson systematically covers the grammar of Finnish. This
is an excellent book - the grammar rules are easy to read and
understand and numerous examples are given. The book uses a very
clear and understandable style of layout. However, it is a
grammar and will need to be used in conjunction with other
material. [NOM]
I've got this book, and while I find it useful, I'd
hesitate to call it "excellent". It's difficult to find things
in it sometimes, it doesn't cover everything (e.g. I would dearly
love to have information on such things as the use of "fossilised"
cases (e.g. maanatai/sin, posti/tse) and I find the rule blocks
written entirely in capitals difficult to read. There is
definite room for improvement. [Matthew Faupel]
Aira Haapakoski, Seija Koski & Mirja Valkesalmi: HUOMENTA SUOMI (Valtion
painatuskeskus, Helsinki, 1990, ISBN 951-861-175-0)
I've used it for adults and children. It
illustrates basic grammar fairly clearly and may make teaching
grammar more fun, it does not, however, give verbal rules, mainly
the info is given in "boxes". Huomenta Suomi costs around 100
FIM (= $25 CAD). [Marja Coady]
Marjatta Karanko & Ulla Talvitie: TOTTAKAI! (Oy Finn Lectura Ab, Loimaan
kirjapaino, Loimaa 1993, ISBN 951-8905-71-1)
I have not used it much yet but it would seem to
be suitable especially for teenagers since its texts are geared
towards them. Grammar is explained somewhat and the book
contains exercises as well. Everything is done in Finnish.
[Marja Coady]
Meri Lehtinen: Basic Course in Finnish (Ural and Altaic Series #27,
Indiana UP, Bloomington, 1963)
A huge book, full of drills. Unfortunately now out of
print. [Lance Eccles]
Terttu Leney: Teach Yourself Finnish (New Version, Hodder and Stoughton,
ISBN 0-340-56174-2) [An audio casette is also available]
Whitney's notorious _Teach Yourself Finnish_ has been
superseded by a new Finnish textbook compiled according to the
Council of Europe's Threshold guidelines on language learning.
It is an excellent introduction to spoken and written
Finnish. [Eugene Holman]
Teach Yourself has just recently brought out a
new version. A colleague recckons its pretty good. [Matthew Faupel]
The new version seems to be a *much* better
book [Antti Lahelma]
Anneli Lieko: Suomen kielen fonetiikkaa ja fonologiaa ulkomaalaisille
(1992) [Finnish phonetics and phonology for foreigners].
A clearly written presentation of the Finnish sound
system intended for foreigners with a good reading knowledge
of the language. The book concentrates on the learning
difficulties foreigners speaking a wide range
of languages face when trying to master Finnish pronunciation.
[Eugene Holman]
I would like to say that the book is certainly useful
but far from being a complete presentation of Finnish phonetics and
phonology for foreigners. It does not, for example, specify exactly
when a two-vowel pair is pronounced as a diphthong (instead of two
vowels belonging to distinct syllables), nor does it describe the
rules for secondary stress in Finnish. Admittedly, these are areas
which have not been studied extensively enough, and they seldom have
any phonematic effect. But the phenomena certainly affect the
naturalness of one's speech in Finnish. [Jukka "Yucca" Korpela]
Olli Nuutinen: Suomea Suomeksi 1. (Suomalaisen Sirjallisuuden Seura,
Helsinki, repr. 1992) Vocabuary available in Danish, Icelandic,
French, Spanish, Swedish, Norwegian, English, German, and Italian.
Teaches everything in Finnish only. Probably less suitable
for self studies. No audio cassettes available. As a student
I know only this one and can't compare, but my impression is
quite good. Seems to be up to date. The German vocabulary
contains many errors. [Uwe Geuder]
At first the book looks extremely childish but all of
the grammar is there. I have found it quite effective when used in
tandem with Karlsson's grammar. I first used this book in
1982 and I would guess it was first published in the
late 70's. This book makes Finnish feel EASY and
with a little imagination is fun to learn from (and teach with!).
[Cecelia A Musselman].
John B. Olli: Fundamentals of Finnish Grammar (Northland Press, New
York, 1958)
This book concentrates mainly on long lists of declensions
and conjugations. The approach taken is not a very helpful for the
learner. [NOM]
Anges Renfors: Finnish Self-Taught (Thimm's System) with Phonetic
Pronunciation (Marlborough's Self Taught Series, London, 1910)
Quite a old one! It is really a structured vocabulary with a
brief grammar and a mini-phrase book. Very similar in many ways
to the modern Berlitz books. [NOM]
Thomas A. Sekeboed (?): Spoken Finnish
It seems to be good for having lots of conversational
stuff in it, though probably you need the tapes (and a grammar)
to make a good go of it [Robert Cumming]
Leena Silfverberg: Suomen kielen jatko-oppikirja (Finn Lectura,
Helsinki?, 1990)
An intermediate course. All in Finnish. Has vocab lists,
but no translations. [Lance Eccles]
Arthur H. Whitney: Finnish (Teach Yourself Books, Hodder and Stoughton,
1956)
Being available in the cheap Teach Yourself Series, this book
is easily and widely available. Which makes it such a shame that
it is so bad. It consists of 20 chapters each of which has a
grammatical section, a vocabulary, and exercises including short
reading passages. The grammar is dreadfully complicated with the
reader learning rare variations almost immediately. It is also
very poorly laid out with no attempt at making it even vaguely
easy on the eye and brain. The vocabularies seem somewhat
pointless - they are normally 4 or 5 pages long which is an
incredible amount of learning expected for a single chapter - it
would have been better to include them alphabetically at the end
of the work and then tell the reader "learn the words beigining
with 'a' today". The exercises and reading passages are short
and no great aid to someone working alone - as "Teach yourself"
implies. A replacement by Terttu Leney is now available in this
series. [NOM]
Yes, that book presents the reader with the most massive
vocabulary lessons I have seen in any text book. But, I liked
one thing about it; the reading passages form a real continuing
story. This is something most language books lack completely.
Personally, I also liked the fact that even the first passage is
far from trivial, not on the order of "Hello, Mrs. Paivinen.
That is a house." But as usually happens with me and language
books, I didn't assimilate the whole of the book. A
lot has stuck, though.
[ <[email protected]> ]
4.8.2 Dictionaries
Suomi-Englanti-Suomi taskusanakirja, WSOY, Porvoo-Helsinki-Juva 1989.
A small pocket dictionary with a stylised picture of the Union
Jack as its cover. Just about passable as a pocket dictionary,
but it often doesn't give an indication of whether the word is
a noun, adjective or verb (not always obvious) and only gives
the basic form of each word (not helpful if it has an irregular
partitive or whatever). It also lacks most Finnish
colloquialisms (the dictionary seems to be designed for Finns
coming to Britain rather than vice-versa). [Matthew Faupel]
WSOY Suomi/Englanti and Englanti/Suomi.
Two volumes, about the same size as the Concise Oxford
(i.e. about 25cmx20cmx8cm). Hence lots of words and
examples. [Matthew Faupel]
Suomi/Englanti/Suomi Sanakirja, Gummerus Kirjapaino OY, 1989
A single volume mid-size dictionary with a reasonable amount
of colloquial information in, but still no information on
things other than the basic forms of words (other than
indirectly via examples). [Matthew Faupel]
Nykysuomen sanakirja
Something like 6 volumes. Irreplaceable for knowing
which words inflect in which ways, and for less common words.
Clearly not for beginners, because of the total lack of English,
but it's currently a bargain at around 300FIM (40 pounds
sterling) in softback. [Steve Kelly]
4.8.3 Readers
Robert Austerlitz: Finnish Reader and Glossary (Research and Studies in
Uralic and Altaic Languages No 14, Indiana UP, 1963)
Aili Rytk�nen Bell & Augustus Koski: Finnish Graded Reader (1968)
(Foreign Service Institute. Department of State. 1968)
[Audio cassettes are also available]
A behemoth (744 pgs.) of a book, this book takes the
student from the advanmced elementary level (approx. 500 words
and basic grammar) up to unedited journalistic, literary, and
historical texts. Jam packed with interesting exercises and
information otherwise unavailable about Finnish vocabulary,
idioms and phraseology. In my opinion this is the
BEST BOOK AVAILABLE for mastering Finnish in all of its
stylistic variety after you have learned the basics. The book
is a public document and costs $17.50 according to the latest
information I have available. [Eugene Holman]
4.8.4 Material for teaching Finnish
(Language Centre for Finnish Universities)
Eija Aalto (ed.): Kohdekielen� suomi. Oppimateriaalien kommentoitu
bibliografia. (Information from the Language Centre for Finnish
Universities, 1991) (in Finnish)
J�nsson-Korhola & White: Rakastan sinua. Pid�tk� sin� minusta? Suomen
verbien rektioita. (Language Centre Materials No. 66, 1989)
H. Koivisto: Suomi-tyt�n kieli. Suggestopedinen alkeiskurssi (Finnish-
English). (Language Centre Materials No. 75, 1990)
K. Siitonen: Auringonvalo. El�m�� suomalaisessa kyl�ss�. (Reading
materials for conversation classes). (Language Centre Materials
No. 79, 1990)
E. Aalto: Kuule hei! Suomen kielen kuunteluharjoituksia
vieraskielisille, (listening comprehension material, booklet + tapes).
(Language Centre Materials No. 80, 1990)
Ahonen & White: Monta sataa suomen sanaa. (reader for vocabulary
building and revision, English glossaries). (Language Centre
Materials No. 101, 1993)
All the above can be ordered from: Language Centre for Finnish
Universities, University of Jyv�skyl�, P.O. Box 35, 40351 Jyv�skyl�,
Finland. If you want further information, feel free to contact Helena Valtanen
<[email protected]>.
[Helena Valtanen]
4.8.5 Miscellaneous
Peter Hajdu: Finno-Ugrian languages and peoples (tr and adapted by G.F.
Cushing fr Hungarian "Finnugor nepek es nyelvek", Deutsch,
London, 1975).
Gives a background to the peoples and cultures of the
Finno-Ugrian family of languages. [NOM]
4.8.6 Course details
Suomea/Finska/Finnish
Soumen kielen ja kultuurin opinnot kes�ll� 1994 /
Att studera finska och Finlands kultur sommaren 1994 /
Courses in Finnish language and culture summer 1994
(Council for Instruction of Finnish for Foreigners, Ministery of
Education)
This brochure is available from UKAN/Opitusministeri|
PL 293, FIN-00171 Helsinki, Finland [Uwe Geuder]
4.8.7 Acknowledgements
With lots of additions & help gratefully received from:
Uwe Geuder <[email protected]>;
Matthew Faupel <[email protected]>
Antti Lahelma <[email protected]>
Eugene Holman <[email protected]>
Robert Cumming <[email protected]>
Cecelia A Musselman <[email protected]>
Helena Valtanen <[email protected]>
Arndt Jonasson <[email protected]>
Brian Wilkins <[email protected]>
Hans-Christian Holm <[email protected]>
Lance Eccles <[email protected]>
Steven Kelly <[email protected]>
Jukka "Yucca" Korpela <[email protected]>
Marja Coady <[email protected]>
plus others.
-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- END OF PART 4 -=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-
� Copyright 1994-96 by Antti Lahelma and Johan Olofsson.
You are free to quote this page as long as you mention the URL for the
original archive (as: <http://www.lysator.liu.se/nordic/index.html>), where
the most recent version of this document can be found.
|
| 245.5 | Iceland | TLE::SAVAGE | | Tue Sep 10 1996 15:53 | 968 |
|
-
A Frequently Answered Questions (FAQ) file for the newsgroup
S O C . C U L T U R E . N O R D I C
*** PART 5: ICELAND ***
Index
5.1 Fact Sheet
5.2 General information
5.2.1 Geography, climate, vegetation
5.2.2 Economy
5.2.3 Government
5.2.4 Population and language
5.3 History
5.3.1 A chronology of important dates
5.3.2 Icelanders discover Greenland
5.3.3 Icelanders discover America (Vinland); L'Anse aux
Meadows
5.4 Main tourist attractions
5.4.1 Reykjavik
5.4.2 Einar Indridason's travel tips
5.4.3 More Iceland tips
5.4.4 Accommodation in Iceland
5.5 The sagas, Eddas, and subsequent Icelandic
literature.
5.5.1 The sagas
5.5.2 The Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda
5.5.3 Later Icelandic literature
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: 5.1 Fact Sheet
Name: L��veldi� �sland
Telephone country code: 354
Area: 103,000 km� / 39,758 sq mi.
(Glaciers: 12.000 km�, lava 11.000 km�, lakes 3.000 km�,
arable land 1.100 km�).
Sea area (within 200 nautical miles of fishery limits): 758.000 km�
Terrain: mostly plateau inerspersed with mountain peaks and icefields;
coast deeply indented by bays and fjords.
Highest mountain: Hvannadalshn�kur, 2119 m.
Largest ice cap: Vatnaj�kull, 8,400 km�.
Natural resources: fish, hydroelectric and geothermal power
Land boundaries: none
Population: 264,922 (1993)
Population density: 2.5 persons per km� (6.5 per sq mi)
Distribution: 90% urban, 10% rural (1990)
Infant mortality: 4 per 1,000 live births (1992)
Life expectancy: male: 76.5, female: 81.0 (1993)
Capital: Reykjav�k (pop. 101,824) (1993)
Other major towns: K�pavogur: (17,172), Hafnarfj�r�ur (16,787)
Akureyri (14,799) (1993)
Flag: a red Nordic cross outlined in white on a blue background
Type: republic
Head of state: President �lafur Ragnar Gr�msson
Languages: Icelandic
Currency: kr�na (Icelandic crown, ISK). 1 USD = 63 ISK (March 1995)
see <gopher://hengill.rhi.hi.is:70/00/daglegt-lif/gengi.dags>
for today's rates.
Climate: coolish temperate, warmed by the Gulf stream. Average temp.
in Reykjav�k: -2�C - 2�C in Jan. and 9�C - 14�C in July.
Religion: Evangelic-Lutheran (96%) (official state-religion)
Exports: Fisheries products: 78,7%
Industrial products: 17,6%
Agricultural products: 1,7%
Other products: 2,0% (1993)
Cars per 1000 inhabitants (1989): 458
Phones per 1000 inhabitants (1989): 503
TVs per 1000 inhabitants (1988): 306
Doctors per 1000 inhabitants (1989) 2,8
Employment: (1991)
Agriculture............... 5,4%
Fishing................... 5,5%
Fish processing........... 6,0%
Other industry............12.5%
Building industry......... 9.8%
Commerce..................14,6%
Transport & communcations. 6,9%
Finance & insurance....... 8,4%
Public sector.............18,5%
Other.....................12,4%
Total 100,0%
------------------------------
Subject: 5.2 General information
<By: Halld�r �rnason et al.>
5.2.1 Geography, climate, vegetation
Iceland is the second largest island in Europe, after Great Britain. It's
the westernmost country in Europe, located far in the North Atlantic, atop
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge which is an area of active volcanism. The island was
indeed formed by numerous volcanos, many of which are still active,
sometimes creating new islands out of the sea.
Vegetation covers less than one-fifth of Icelands area and only about 1.1%
is cultivated. Trees, mostly birch, grow in some places, along with some
willows. The rest of the country is barren mountains, deserts (lava beds
cover some 11% of Iceland) and glaciers (12%). Vatnaj�kull (Lakes' Glacier)
in the southeast is the largest Ice field in Europe and �d��ahraun (Lava of
ill deeds) north of Vatnaj�kull is the largest lava bed on earth. Rivers and
waterfalls are plenty, and provide hydroelectric power. Over 90% of homes
are heated by hot springs, which also keeps greenhouses warm, where the
famous Icelandic bananas are grown.
5.2.2 Economy
Fishing produces Iceland's main exports, although it employs only ca. 12% of
the work force. The country has no railroads, but a network of highways and
secondary roads provides access to all inhabited parts of Iceland. Air
transportation also plays an important role, both locally and
internationally, through the main airports at Reykjav�k and at Keflav�k,
where also a U.S naval base is located (Iceland has no military force of its
own).
5.2.3 Government
Iceland is a constitutional republic governed by a general assembly, the
Althing, which is sometimes called the oldest democratic institution in
existense. The president is elected every four years by universal suffrage
for all persons over 18 years of age. Icelanders seem to like their
presidents, because a president running for reelection has in nine times out
of ten gone unopposed, and the tenth time won by a landslide. Real executive
power is held by the prime minister and the cabinet. Fore more information,
see the URL <http://www.althingi.is/~wwwadm/upplens.html>.
5.2.4 Population and language
Iceland's population is a homogeneous mixture of Scandinavian and Celtic
origin. Unlike the other Nordic countries there are no dialects to speak of.
The language spoken in Iceland has changed very little since the island was
settled, some 11 centuries ago. Icelandic and Faroese are the only
Scandinavian languages to have kept the complicated inflection system of the
Old Norse spoken during the viking age.
------------------------------
Subject: 5.3 History
5.3.1 A chronology of important dates
ca. 800
Irish explorers discover Iceland.
874 Iceland receives its first inhabitants from Norway (prior to that, some
Celtic colonies had existed in Iceland) as Ing�lfr Arnarson arrives in
Reykjav�k.
930 The Icelandic parliament, "Althing", had its first meeting. The Al�ing
is the oldest parliamentary system still operating in Europe.
985 Eir�kr (Eric) the Red discovers and settles in Greenland.
1000
Christianity adopted as the new religion. Leifr Er�ksson ('Leif The
lucky') discovers North America and names it V�nland.
1120-1230
The old Scandinavian sagas were written down in Iceland. Snorri
Sturluson, a nobleman, historian and poet, writes (or is believed to
have written) the Prose Edda and the Heimskringla
1262
Weakened by internal struggles, Iceland becomes under Norwegian rule,
maintaining, however, a large autonomy. The end of the age of
Sturlungs.
1387
Norway, and with it Iceland, becomes united to Denmark.
1400's-1700's
Pestilence, commercial exploitation, and natural catastrophes nearly
wiped out the Icelandic nation; by the late 18th century its number had
dropped to less than 40,000. A revival began in the 19th century.
1536
Iceland becomes Lutheran. The Bible is translated into Icelandic in
1584.
1783-86
The worst volcanic eruptions in the history of Iceland. Grass was
burned from large areas, 3/4 of cattle starved to death and likewise,
1/4 of Iceland's inhabitants died of starvation.
1786
Reykjav�k received trade rights.
1800
The Althing meetings discontinued by the Danish king.
1843
With the awakening of Icelandic nationalism, the Al�ing is
re-established as a consultative body.
1874
Iceland gets a constitution of its own.
1904
Home rule under Denmark.
1918
Denmark recognizes Iceland as a sovereign state, but Iceland remains
united with Denmark.
1940
When Denmark falls to the Nazis, Iceland is occupied by British troops
to prevent a German attack.
1941
U.S forces take over defence of Iceland.
1944
Iceland declares full independence at �ingvellir.
1946
Iceland joins the United Nations.
1949
Iceland joins the NATO after a long dispute, and in 1951 reluctantly
allows the U.S to maintain a naval base at Keflav�k in return for U.S
defense of Iceland.
1963
An underwater volcanic eruption creates a new island, named Surtsey, on
the Icelandic coast.
1973
The volcano Helgafell erupted on the island of Heimaey, destroying 1/4
of the houses of Vestmanneyjar, one of Iceland's busiest fishing
harbours. The rest was dug out of the ashes and most people moved back.
1975
Fishery limits extended to 200 miles. "Cod war" with Britain.
1980
Vigd�s Finnbogad�ttir becomes the first woman ever to be democratically
elected President of a Republic. She has been re-elected in 1984, 1988,
and 1992.
1986
Reagan-Gorbachev Summit Meeting held in H�f�i house, Reykjav�k
5.3.2 Greenland
Greenland is said to have been discovered by a man called Gunnbj�rn whose
ship had gone off course. It was, however, Eir�kr �orvaldsson (a.k.a Eric
the Red) who explored and named the island, and ruled the first colony of
settlers. He who was born in Norway in the mid-10th century, but went to
Iceland as a child after his father was banished from Norway. A violent man
as he was, Eir�kr himself was banished from Iceland, and set forth on an
expedition westward from Iceland. In 981 he got to Greenland (a name he gave
to encourage settlers to go there), and spent the next three years exploring
it. After that he returned to Iceland and led an expedition of 25 ships to
settle (c.985) in southwestern Greenland. This settlement survived until the
late 15th century. Eir�kr himself settled at Brattahli� (Tunigdliarfik) in
Greenland, where he died sometime after the year 1000.
The most important written sources recounting the discovery and settlement
of Greenland are Ari �orgilsson's �slendingab�k and Land�mab�k. There are
also two colourful sagas, Gr�nlendinga Saga (The Saga of the Greenlanders)
and Eir�ks saga rau�a (The Saga of Eric the Red), but these were composed
only in the early 13th century and are often fanciful and contradict each
other in places.
Greenland's attraction was that it had better pasture for sheep, goats and
cows than Iceland, where the soil had already become poor after about a
century of heavy exploitation. Farmers had never lived there, the climate
was probably a bit milder than today, and some of the fertile lowlands which
now have have disappeared under sea were above surface at that time. There
was probably also quite a lot of driftwood in Greenland at that time. Catch
was plenty in the sea, and there were reindeer, bears and birds to hunt on
land. Pelts of polar bears and arctic foxes, whalebone and walrus tusks were
used to pay for the essential imports, such as metal, timber and grain, as
well as luxury goods. But the colony was vulnerable if there were epidemics
among animals or people or even small climactic changes, and it died out
sometime in the 15th century -- the exact reason isn't known. In 1712,
centuries after the links between Greenland and the rest of the world had
been broken, the king of Denmark-Norway sent an expedition to Greenland with
pastor Hans Egede to nurture the Christian faith among the Viking
descendants, but none had survived. The Eskimos had long since penetrated to
the southernmost point of the country, and these were the Greenlanders Egede
met.
5.3.3 Vinland; L'Anse aux Meadows
According to the sagas, Vinland was discovered when ships went off course
during one of the long journeys from Iceland or Norway to Greenland. The
Saga of the Greenlanders attributes the first sighting of America to Bjarni
Herj�lfsson who had emigrated with Eir�kr the Red to Greenland, although
Bjarni didn't actually set foot on Vinland; the Saga of Eir�kr the Red, on
the other hand, says that the discovery was made by Leifr the Lucky,
Eir�kr's son. Leifur grew up in Greenland but in ca. 999 he visited Norway,
where he was converted to Christianity. According to one saga, he was then
commissioned by King Olaf I to convert the Greenlanders to Christianity, but
he was blown off course, missed Greenland, and reached North America (this
story, however, is now known to be fiction, made by up by an Icelandic
priest called Gunnlaugr in the 13th century). The other, more probable
version of the story describes Leifur sailing on a planned voyage to lands
to the west of Greenland that had been sighted 15 years earlier by Bjarni.
He landed at places called Helluland and Markland and wintered at Vinland,
and returned back to Greenland.
After Leifr's journey an expedition led by �orfinnr Karlsefni, a wealthy
Icelandic trader, returned to settle V�nland in c.1010 and wintered there.
The Scandinavians, both men and women, first traded but then fought with the
native Skr�lings. The descriptions of Skr�ling culture in the sagas are
consistent with American Indian life. Because of Skr�ling attacks, the
settlement was abandoned after three winters.
There is some disagreement on where exactly the places visited by Leifr
were. Vinland (Vine Land) was presumably Newfoundland, Markland (Wood Land)
Labrador Island and Helluland (Flat Rock Land) Baffin Island. The only firm
evidence of Scandinavian presence in North America has been found in
Newfoundland at L'Anse aux Meadows, where excavations begun in 1961 have
revealed the remains of eight turf-walled houses, one of which was a
longhouse 22 m by 15 m (72 ft by 50 ft) containing five rooms including a
"great hall," and a smithy, where bog iron was smelted. Several of the
houses had stone ember pits identical with those found in Norse houses in
Greenland. Among the artifacts unearthed was a soapstone spindle whorl
similar to those discovered in Norse ruins in Greenland, Iceland, and
Scandinavia; this find suggests that women as well as men were present at
the site, which is also consistent with the sagas. Other artifacts point to
a brief, much earlier occupation of the site by Maritime Archaic Indians and
a later occupation by Dorset Eskimo. L'Anse aux Meadows may have been the
place of �orfinnr's settlement. The site was a good one for a pioneer
community; the soil was fertile, there was plenty of fish and game, the
climate was mild and there was iron ore available, but the area wasn't
previously uninhabited; the local Indians seem to have made long-lasting
settlements impossible.
The journeys to Vinland continued into the Middle Ages, but apparently only
to obtain raw materials for the Greenland colony. Some scholars have
suggested that L'Anse aux Meadows was a transit station to journeys further
south, but apart from a Norwegian coin from King Olaf Kyrre's reign
(1066-80) found on an Indian settlement in the state of Maine, there are no
traces early Scandinavian presence further south. The various rune stones,
such as the Kensington Stone, and other similar V�king objects 'found' in
North America are all faked. Similarly, the New World portions of Yale
University's Vinland map, a world map supposedly made about 1440 which
includes Vinland and Greenland, was in 1974 revealed as a modern forgery.
------------------------------
Subject: 5.4 Main tourist attractions
5.4.1 Reykjav�k
Reykjav�k is the most northerly capital in the world and the largest city of
Iceland, situated on Faxa Bay on the southwest coast. It is here that
Iceland's first settler, Ing�lfr Arnarson, landed in 874. According to the
sagas, when he approached the shore, he threw two carved, wooden pillars to
the water and swore that he would settle where they came ashore. The
settlement began as a small fishing village, a charter was granted in 1786,
and the city became an episcopal see in 1796. Reykjav�k has been the seat of
the Althing since 1843, and it was made the capital of Iceland in 1918.
Ing�lfr named the place Reykjav�k (Smoky Bay), perhaps because of the
geysers and hot steam pouring from the ground. However, Reykjav�k is in fact
probably one of world's most smoke-free cities, because of the extensive use
of clean, geothermal power.
More than half of Iceland's population lives in or near Reykjav�k, making it
the heart of the country's cultural, commercial, and governmental life. It's
a modern city, but the old centre, including the Parliament House (1881) and
the mid-18th century Government Building, has been carefully preserved.
Close to them are the National Library and the National Theatre, and the
statue of Ing�lfr Arnarson. Interesting churches in Reykjav�k include the
the old cathedral near the Parliament, and the the new, 75m high
Hallgr�ms-kirkja; there's a great view over the city from the spire. Other
places worth visiting are the University (1911), the National Museum (1863)
which houses exhibits from around the world and items from the Viking age
and Iceland's nautical past, and the �rni Magn�sson Institute (where the
priceless saga manuscripts are on display.
The newest sight of the city is the City Hall (opened in 1992), which is
built partly on a lake; apart from being an administrative centre, it also
houses exhibitions and a cafe with views to the lake. �rb�r Folk Museum is
in the outskirts of the city, and has a collection of old, traditional
buildings, mostly from Reykjav�k, but also from elsewhere in Iceland. The
Nordic House designed by the Finnish architect Alvar Aalto has a library,
cafe, a permanent exhibition devoted to the Nordic way of life, and stages
concerts, etc.
5.4.2 Einar Indri�ason's travel tips
[ From: Einar Indri�ason <[email protected]> ]
As many people come to Iceland by a plane the first impression that they get
of the country is that it must be barren and covered with lava, as that is
the view they see on their way from Keflav�k airport to the Capital. That is
not correct. Iceland has very varied landscape; it is magnificent in some
places while there's nothing special in other places.
Some popular attractions are the day trips from Reykjav�k. One of them is
called the "golden circle" which goes from Reykjav�k to �ingvellir, from
there to Geysir, Gullfoss and even a small visit in Fl��ir. From there it
continues to Hverager�i, finally returning to Reykjav�k. Another one is to
visit the "Blue Lagoon" (Bl�a l�ni�) and take a bath in the lagoon.
Other tours are also popular but they take you out to the country and you
can expect to spend some days or even longer on such tours. Examples of such
tours include: (but do not fully cover them :-> M�vatn, Skaptafell,
Landmannalaugar, H�safell, Sprengisandur, Kj�lur.
What are those places mentioned in the above text?
Reykjav�k City is the capital of Iceland, as you should know if you read the
"fact-sheet" on Iceland :->
�ingvellir is where the old parliament was located. It is now a national
park with some magnificent views.
Geysir is a hot water spring, and it blows occasionally. Much more alive is
its fellow 'hot-water-spring' named Strokkur. One can always count on
Strokkur to give some fancy shows if you wait ca. 5-20 minutes (depends on
the weather).
Gullfoss is a "two-storey-high" waterfall about 10km from Geysir. The view
there is magnificent.
Fl��ir is a small town in the southern part of the country, not very far
from Gullfoss and Geysir, and is famous for it's mushrooms.
Hverager�i is also a small town in the southern part of the country about
45km away from Reykjav�k. In Hverager�i there are many greenhouses powered
by the hot water from the earth.
Bl�a L�ni� (blue lagoon) is a pool of water that is located on the
south-western corner of the country. It is a bluish pool (hence the name)
which contains some stuff that psoriasis-patients find great to rub and
smear on their body. Others find the lake or pool a great place to relax.
The temperature of the lake ranges from warm to hot, and there are places in
the water where no-one should go to as the temperature gets too high there
and can cause a severe burns.
M�vatn is a lake in the northern part of the country. The landscape around
the lake is magnificent, and not only the landscape closest to the lake but
for some distance from it too. At M�vatn there are several birds and plants
that are rarely seen elsewhere in the country.
Skaptafell is an "oasis" at the root of a glacier in the south-eastern part
of the country. Even if it is at the root of a glacier it has a great views
and you will feel the nature. (But you must take the time to relax and feel
the nature!)
And how are you supposed to travel in Iceland?
Well, you can take your own car on the ferry from Scotland or Faroe Islands
to Iceland and use it to drive around the country. If you do, please bear in
mind that Iceland has some sensitive plants and that driving outside of the
roads is not nice to the nature. Also please bear in mind to follow all
instructions about a closed road or closed track and don't try to "bypass"
it, even if you are on some "highly-efficient-off-road" vehicle.
Or you could rent a car and drive around the country on it. (If you do, the
same applies to you as for those that bring their own car; be gently on the
land).
Or you could hitch-hike around the country.
Or you could buy a ticket with the buses here. Last time I checked, one
could buy two types of tickets. (Not counting the ticket that takes you from
place A to place B with minimum of hassle). I am talking about "unlimited
use of buses for some limited time" vs. "limited use of busses for (almost)
an unlimited time".
You can buy a ticket that says something like this: "This person can travel
with all busses during the period from XXX to YYY, and need not pay any
more; he has already paid for the trip."
And then there is the "This person can only travel in one direction on the
main-road, but can take as much time to do it as is needed. (Up to a limit
that is, but that limit is pretty high.)"
A question that is sometimes asked is: "What clothes should I take with me
to Iceland?"
Well, I am not sure if you'll believe this but I recommend that you take the
whole "spectrum"; light clothes for the hot and sunny days, clothes to
protect you from light rain and no wind, clothes to protect you from high
wind and heavy rain, and warm clothes to keep you warm those freezing
nights. (Yes, they do occur, even in the summertime. Especially in the
higher parts of the country).
You might get some cultural shocks here in Iceland in regard to food. But
even if you don't like the looks or the names or the smell or something
about some Icelandic food, do try it. Even just one bite of it. Looks,
names, smells can be deceiving.
One of the specialties occasionally offered is called "svi�". Svi� is a
burned sheep-head, which is boiled and eaten. It tastes good, but you might
be put off by the head looking at you while you're eating it :->
"Skyr" is a white, milky substance, which looks a bit like jelly, but has a
peculiar taste and no visitor to Iceland should leave without tasting skyr
first!
Lifrarpylsa is a mixed internals from sheeps and is boiled. It is eaten
either cold or warmed up.
A full day tour through the black rock desert to Her�ubrei�, the queen of
Icelandic mountains, and the fertile oasis at its foot, on across the lunar
landscape to the great Volcanic caldera Askja. Askja last erupted in 1961.
The crater V�ti (hell) formed by an immense eruption in 1875 which buried
parts of the farmland in northeast Iceland in ashes, is now filled with warm
sulphuric water (good for bathing).
5.4.3 More tips from various articles
The following part is from Dirk Grutzmacher <[email protected]>,
compiled of replies to a query posted to the group.
"What to do"
There is a "Lonely Planet" series book on "Iceland, Greenland & Faeroes".
For a complete guide to Iceland I suggest to look into getting this. Iceland
is probably Europes most expensive country. So I imagine you'll want to camp
or go bed'n'breakfast. It's advisable to book B&B before you go. If you look
back a couple of 100 articles in the soc.culture.nordic newsgroup someone
posted about a week back a list of B&B phone numbers. Go round the whole
country. It's not all the same! Take at least one inland "lowflying" flight.
The country from above is really something. Try the horse riding. An
Icelandic horse is like no other horse.
"What not to do"
Tip. Icelanders don't like being tipped.
Don't wear your shoes in their houses. Everyone takes off their shoes as
they enter a house.
If you like a occasional beer to relax ;-) then I suggest you buy a pack of
beer in the Icelandic duty free as you enter the country. Just follow all
the Icelanders as they get of the plane. They ALWAYS buy from duty free.
You'll see why, if you go to a night club and order a beer. Usually 6 pounds
a pint.
Don't wear a jumper and jeans if you want to go out at night on the town.
Icelanders over dress no matter what the occasion. You can spot the tourist
by the jumper'n'jeans.
Some clubs get a bit wild. Be careful. Especially if you chat up local
girls.
Iceland is the most hospitable country I've ever been to. They almost seem
nicer to outsiders than they do to each other. Never be afraid to ask any
question of anyone.
Also most younger Icelanders speak English. German also, but this is not as
common. They all know Danish but refuse to speak or even understand it. :->
Answer 2
There is so much that you can see in Iceland, the nature is just out of this
world. (the NASA used the landscape of Mt. Askja to practice for the moon
voyage in the late sixties)
If you never get sea-sick, you should definetly go to Stykkish�lmur, which
is a town on the Sn�fellsnes peninsula. There you can sail on Brei�afjord.
Not only is it full of many small and beautiful islands, but also it is much
fun to see all the seabirds. In the middle of the trip the crew will throw
down a small trawl, which will bring back many specimens of the animals that
live on the bottom of the sea; crabs, sea-urchins, clams, scallops, and
mussels. If you are daring enough you can try to taste the scallops and the
sea-urchin's eggs, it really doesn't taste as bad as it sounds.
This is one of many package-trips that BS� (the Icelandic Grayhound bus
system) offers each summer. Some of the worthwhile BS� trips are:
A day trip to �ingvellir which is the spot where the Icelandic parliament
(Althing) was founded. This is also where the North American and the
European crustal plates meet.
The "Blue Lagoon" is a very pretty lagoon formed from excess water from a
hot water plant. In it is white silica clay, which some believe is a good
medicine for psoriasis and eczema. The clay gives the lagoon a very special
colour, and the steam gives it a very mystic atmosphere. In the Blue Lagoon
there is a resturant, from the poolside are long tables into the lagoon,
where waiters in swimsuit serve you very good fish. it is a unique
experience.
The Westman Islands (Vestmannaeyjar) are a group of 15 islands, named after
the Irish slaves of the first Norse settler. Only the biggest one, Heimaey
is inhabited. In 1973 all the residents had to be evacuated when a volcanic
eruption destroyed a sizable part of the island. A year later almost all of
the poeple returned to rebuild the town. On the Westman Islands is the
biggest Puffin colony in Europe.
The "Golden Circle" is the most popular tourist attraction. On this tour you
will see the "golden waterfall" (gullfoss) where hundreds of tons of glacial
water cascade down some 32 meters into the 40-70 m deep river gorge. Only
six km. to the west lies the Geysir geothermal area, with the great Geysir,
known to have erupted water as high as 80 m. in the air. Today the very
active Strokkur erupts every few minutes, some 10-20 m. high. A great tour
for two of the world's most famous natural wonders. The tour ends with a
visit to �ingvellir, and then on to Reykjav�k.
The Northern part of Iceland is very beautiful. From Akureyri (the capital
of the north) you should visit the famous lake M�vatn, the beutiful
water-fall Go�afoss and the Krafla area. The Dimmuborgir area (the black
castles) is spooky. There the stories of the "Hulduf�lk" really come true.
The hulduf�lk are small people that live in the rocks of Iceland. The
Hulduf�lk were created when Adam and Eve were still in Paradise. One day God
decided to pay them a visit. Eve found out that God was on his way, so she
started to wash all her children, but she couldn't finish washing them all,
so she hid them. When God came he asked if the children that she showed him
were all the children that she owned, and Eve said they were. Then God said
that he knew that she was lying, and since she felt that her dirty children
were not good enough to show him, he decided that nobody should be able to
see them, and made them invisible. The Hulduf�lk can decide if they want you
to see them or not.
A full day tour through the black rock desert to Her�ubrei�, the queen of
Icelandic mountains, and the fertile oasis at its foot, on across the lunar
landscape to the great Volcanic caldera Askja. Askja last erupted in 1961.
The crater V�ti (hell) formed by an immense eruption in 1875 which buried
parts of the farmland in northeast Iceland in ashes, is now filled with warm
sulphuric water (good for bathing).
J�kulsarl�n and Skaftafell national park are very cool places to see.
J�kulsarl�n is a glacial lagoon at the edge of Vatnaj�kull ice tounges,
which is full of magnificent floating icebergs. Skaftafell national park is
a beutiful contrast between the white icecap, the black basaltic sands,
muddy glacial waters and clear brooks in narrow gulches, woodlands and wide
variety of flowering plants is enough to amase anyone.
It is a unique experience to go horseback riding in Iceland. There are many
companies that offer those trips.
Many of the day-trips that I have listed above have to be booked in advance
so it is very good to decide what you are going to do before you come here,
or at least to have a good idea about what you'd like to do.
Answer 3
It depends whether you've seen fjords, glaciers or volcanic scenery before.
A week is not too much time, so you might not want to take the bus right
round the island (what I did in '88, and it was wonderful). My favourite
bits were the eastern fjords (the bus careering round gravel roads on cliff
edges) and the black sands east of V�k on the south coast. Eat skyr and
�vaxtagrautur and dried fish (because you won't find them anywhere else
probably), do try and speak Icelandic a bit (there's a good Langenscheidt
dictionary which you ought to be able to buy there), cos the Icelanders
really open up if you try a bit. Go swimming somewhere, just for the warmth
and the smell. The Blue Lagoon is OK, but there are an awful lot of
tourists; same goes for Gullfoss and Geysir and Thingvellir.
The weather will probably be OK; like Argyll but colder. And the YHs are
pretty good...
5.4.4 Accommodation in Iceland
Summer hotels:
Various hotels around the country operate in summer only. Many of those are
schools in winter with swimming pools and hot springs nearby. Most have
licenced resturantsand bars. Prices for a single room with shower range
from: USD 53 (breakfast not included), and for a double room with shower
from USD 84.50 (breakfast from USD 10)
Edda hotels:
The Icelandic tourist bureau operates a chain of seventeen tourist-class
hotels around the country under the name of EDDA hotels. Both bed and
breakfast and sleeping-bag accommodations are offered. The head office is at
Sk�garhl�� 18, 101 Reykjav�k TEL: +345-562-3300 FAX: +345-562-5895. Prices
for rooms without bath range from USD 52 for a single to USD 68 for a
double, and for rooms with bath from UDS 72 for a single to USD 99 for a
double, breakfast costs USD 11 and sleeping-bag accommodation is from USD 14
Farmhouse accommodation:
Icelandic Farm Holidays is a chain of farms around Iceland offering
travellers accommodation and variety of services. some activities offered at
farms are horseback riding, fishing, hunting rounding up sheep and swimming.
Accommodation is in the farmhouse, separate houses or cottages. Travellers
can choose from bed and breakfast or sleeping-bag accommodation. Cottages
are usually rented by the week. For a new brochure or booking, contact a
travel agent or Icelandic Far Holidays, B�ndah�llin at Hagatorg, 107
Reykjav�k, TEL: +345-562-3640. FAX: +345-562-3644. Prices for bed and
breakfast per person in a double room range from USD 40-70, and for
sleeping-bag accommodation from USD11-22. A cottage for one week costs on
average USD 400-600 for 4 persons, and USD 450-670 for 6 persons.
Youth and family hostels:
There are various youth and family hostels around Iceland and all people are
welcome regardless of age. Almost all hostels have family rooms (rooms with
2 to 4 beds). A few hostels are open all year, others operate in summer
only. for further information contact the Icelandic Youth Hostels
Association, Sundlaugarvegur 34, 105 Reykjav�k TEL: +345-553-8110, FAX:
+345-567-9201. Price for accommodation is USD 20, for members USD 17, linen
extra USD 4, breakfast extra USD 9.
------------------------------
Subject: 5.5 The sagas, Eddas, and subsequent Icelandic literature.
The first Icelandic literature was written down some two centuries after the
island was settled in the 9th century. It can be divided into three
categories:
1. Eddic poetry, i.e mythological and heroic poems
2. skaldic poetry, or court poetry in praise of some event or person
3. saga literature -- prose works ranging from fairly factual history
writing to pure fiction.
5.5.1 The Sagas
The sagas are without doubt Iceland's most important contribution to world
literature. They are medieval prose narrative, abounding in paradox and
iron. Violence is abundant, but the style is subdued. Heroism is praised,
but moderation is more highly prized. Much is said of fate, but the complex
characters seem to control their own destinies. The world of the saga is
pagan, but its sentiment is humanitarian.
Among the more historical saga literature, based on both oral and written
sources, the best known are Ari �orgilsson's �slendingab�k (a history of
Iceland), Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla ('The Disc of the World', a
history of Swedish and Norwegian kings), and the anonymous Knytlinga Saga (a
history of Danish kings). An excellent example of the fictional saga
literature is Hrafnkels Saga, a short bildungsroman. The family sagas, such
as Egils Saga (the story of Iceland's greatest skald, Egill Skalla-
gr�msson) and Nj�ls Saga, fall somewhere in between the fictional and
factual varieties of sagas.
Heimskringla is the most celebrated of the sagas, but the dramatic Egil's
Saga (c.1220) comes close. The more ornate Laxd�la Saga (c.1250) elaborates
tragic themes from the poems of the Edda. In Grettis Saga (c.1300), which
shares motifs with the Old English poem Beowulf, the hero succumbs to pagan
sorcery. Nj�ls Saga (c.1230-90) both glorifies and repudiates the Saga Age
(870-1050), and provides an important description of ancient Icelandic legal
system. The most important of the legendary sagas is V�lsunga Saga (c.1250);
it was a major source for Wagner's operas, and retells parts of the Edda.
5.5.2 The Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda
The Eddas are two collections of Old Icelandic writings, and together they
form the most important source of Scandinavian mythology. The Poetic Edda is
a collection of 34 Icelandic poems, interspersed with prose dating from the
9th to the 12th century. The poems were composed by anonymous poets and they
deal mostly with mythological themes. Among the most important of these are
the poems V�lusp� (The vision of the Seeress) and H�vam�l (The Speech of the
High One). To give some taste of the nature of this poetry, here's a famous
quote from H�vam�l, where Odin ('The High One') speaks of how he acquired
the art of casting runes by being sacrificed on a branch of the World Tree:
I know I hung
on the windswept Tree
through nine days and nights
I was struck with a spear
and given to Odin,
myself given to myself
They helped me neither
by meat nor drink
I peered downward,
I took up the runes,
screaming, I took them -
then I fell back.
The Younger, or Prose, Edda (c. 1220) is the work of the Snorri Sturluson.
It was probably intended as a handbook for novice poets who wished to become
skalds, or court poets, in a time when the old pagan tradition was already
beginning to fade from men's minds but was still appreciated. Snorri was a
brilliant stylist, writing in his native Icelandic; his Edda is no dry
antiquarian treatise, but a witty, imaginative and lively account of the old
tales of the gods. Despite his being a Christian, there is little doubt that
Snorri has given us a faithful picture of heathen mythology as it was known
in his day; there are few attempts at rationalizing or pointing towards some
Christian moral teaching. It is difficult to know to how far removed
Snorri's stories are from the living faith of the pagan era, but despite its
limitations, the Prose Edda is the best introduction to the world of
Scandinavian mythology there exists. (For a summary of the basic aspects of
Norse mythology, see section 2.2).
5.5.3 Later Icelandic literature
The epic Icelandic tradition climaxed in the 13th century. Pre-Reformation
literature also includes Eysteinn �sgrimsson's religious poem Lilja (14th
century), a number of popular ballads, and the r�mur, which were cycles of
epic poetry.
After the Reformation, Iceland experienced three centuries of poverty, which
also affected its literature, although in the 17th century Hallgr�mur
P�tursson wrote his important Passion Hymns. Romanticism bloomed in the 19th
century in the poetry of J�nas Hallgr�msson and Gr�mur Thomsen, while the
novelist J�n Thoroddsen foreshadowed realism. In the early 20th century some
Icelanders began to write in Danish; the most important of them was the
novelist Gunnar Gunnarsson.
After World War I, Icelandic literature experienced a renaissance,
especially in form of the poetry of Stef�n fr� Hv�tadal, Dav�� Stef�nsson,
and T�mas Gu�mundsson. Of the prose writers of this era the most prominent
were ��rbergur ��r�arson and the Nobel Prize winner Halld�r Laxness, the
most important figure of modern Icelandic literature. After World War II
another generation of poets took over, introducing modernist features into
the heavily traditional Icelandic poetry. Among the leaders of this
avant-garde were Steinn Steinarr and J�n �r V�r. Some of the writers active
in Iceland today are the poets Hannes P�tursson and Snorri Hjartarson, and
the novelists �lafur J�hann Sigur�sson (who is also a poet), Thor
Vilhj�lmsson, and Indri�i G. �orsteinsson.
For electronic versions of some of the works of Nordic literature, see the
collection of Project Runeberg:
* <http://www.lysator.liu.se/runeberg/>
* <ftp://ftp.lysator.liu.se/pub/runeberg>
* gopher.lysator.liu.se ; path: /project-runeberg
5.3.2 Greenland
Greenland is said to have been discovered by a man called Gunnbj�rn whose
ship had gone off course. It was, however, Eir�kr �orvaldsson (a.k.a Eric
the Red) who explored and named the island, and ruled the first colony of
settlers. He who was born in Norway in the mid-10th century, but went to
Iceland as a child after his father was banished from Norway. A violent man
as he was, Eir�kr himself was banished from Iceland, and set forth on an
expedition westward from Iceland. In 981 he got to Greenland (a name he gave
to encourage settlers to go there), and spent the next three years exploring
it. After that he returned to Iceland and led an expedition of 25 ships to
settle (c.985) in southwestern Greenland. This settlement survived until the
late 15th century. Eir�kr himself settled at Brattahli� (Tunigdliarfik) in
Greenland, where he died sometime after the year 1000.
The most important written sources recounting the discovery and settlement
of Greenland are Ari �orgilsson's �slendingab�k and Land�mab�k. There are
also two colourful sagas, Gr�nlendinga Saga (The Saga of the Greenlanders)
and Eir�ks saga rau�a (The Saga of Eric the Red), but these were composed
only in the early 13th century and are often fanciful and contradict each
other in places.
Greenland's attraction was that it had better pasture for sheep, goats and
cows than Iceland, where the soil had already become poor after about a
century of heavy exploitation. Farmers had never lived there, the climate
was probably a bit milder than today, and some of the fertile lowlands which
now have have disappeared under sea were above surface at that time. There
was probably also quite a lot of driftwood in Greenland at that time. Catch
was plenty in the sea, and there were reindeer, bears and birds to hunt on
land. Pelts of polar bears and arctic foxes, whalebone and walrus tusks were
used to pay for the essential imports, such as metal, timber and grain, as
well as luxury goods. But the colony was vulnerable if there were epidemics
among animals or people or even small climactic changes, and it died out
sometime in the 15th century -- the exact reason isn't known. In 1712,
centuries after the links between Greenland and the rest of the world had
been broken, the king of Denmark-Norway sent an expedition to Greenland with
pastor Hans Egede to nurture the Christian faith among the Viking
descendants, but none had survived. The Eskimos had long since penetrated to
the southernmost point of the country, and these were the Greenlanders Egede
met.
5.3.3 Vinland; L'Anse aux Meadows
According to the sagas, Vinland was discovered when ships went off course
during one of the long journeys from Iceland or Norway to Greenland. The
Saga of the Greenlanders attributes the first sighting of America to Bjarni
Herj�lfsson who had emigrated with Eir�kr the Red to Greenland, although
Bjarni didn't actually set foot on Vinland; the Saga of Eir�kr the Red, on
the other hand, says that the discovery was made by Leifr the Lucky,
Eir�kr's son. Leifur grew up in Greenland but in ca. 999 he visited Norway,
where he was converted to Christianity. According to one saga, he was then
commissioned by King Olaf I to convert the Greenlanders to Christianity, but
he was blown off course, missed Greenland, and reached North America (this
story, however, is now known to be fiction, made by up by an Icelandic
priest called Gunnlaugr in the 13th century). The other, more probable
version of the story describes Leifur sailing on a planned voyage to lands
to the west of Greenland that had been sighted 15 years earlier by Bjarni.
He landed at places called Helluland and Markland and wintered at Vinland,
and returned back to Greenland.
After Leifr's journey an expedition led by �orfinnr Karlsefni, a wealthy
Icelandic trader, returned to settle V�nland in c.1010 and wintered there.
The Scandinavians, both men and women, first traded but then fought with the
native Skr�lings. The descriptions of Skr�ling culture in the sagas are
consistent with American Indian life. Because of Skr�ling attacks, the
settlement was abandoned after three winters.
There is some disagreement on where exactly the places visited by Leifr
were. Vinland (Vine Land) was presumably Newfoundland, Markland (Wood Land)
Labrador Island and Helluland (Flat Rock Land) Baffin Island. The only firm
evidence of Scandinavian presence in North America has been found in
Newfoundland at L'Anse aux Meadows, where excavations begun in 1961 have
revealed the remains of eight turf-walled houses, one of which was a
longhouse 22 m by 15 m (72 ft by 50 ft) containing five rooms including a
"great hall," and a smithy, where bog iron was smelted. Several of the
houses had stone ember pits identical with those found in Norse houses in
Greenland. Among the artifacts unearthed was a soapstone spindle whorl
similar to those discovered in Norse ruins in Greenland, Iceland, and
Scandinavia; this find suggests that women as well as men were present at
the site, which is also consistent with the sagas. Other artifacts point to
a brief, much earlier occupation of the site by Maritime Archaic Indians and
a later occupation by Dorset Eskimo. L'Anse aux Meadows may have been the
place of �orfinnr's settlement. The site was a good one for a pioneer
community; the soil was fertile, there was plenty of fish and game, the
climate was mild and there was iron ore available, but the area wasn't
previously uninhabited; the local Indians seem to have made long-lasting
settlements impossible.
The journeys to Vinland continued into the Middle Ages, but apparently only
to obtain raw materials for the Greenland colony. Some scholars have
suggested that L'Anse aux Meadows was a transit station to journeys further
south, but apart from a Norwegian coin from King Olaf Kyrre's reign
(1066-80) found on an Indian settlement in the state of Maine, there are no
traces early Scandinavian presence further south. The various rune stones,
such as the Kensington Stone, and other similar V�king objects 'found' in
North America are all faked. Similarly, the New World portions of Yale
University's Vinland map, a world map supposedly made about 1440 which
includes Vinland and Greenland, was in 1974 revealed as a modern forgery.
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