Conference tallis::celt

277.0. "A POTTED HISTORY OF IRELAND BY THE SNAKE." by GAOV07::MHUGHES (dean corp-trialladh don banrion) Thu Oct 01 1987 11:56

A work of genius, that might be appropriate for this conference.
    BEWARE ITS LONG, and should be printed off.



                 A POTTED HISTORY OF IRELAND
                 ===========================
                                    With emphasis on the relevance of
                                    the violence in Northern Ireland.

Preface:
        I am not a historian. I will attempt to inform. I do not claim
total accuracy (especially with regard to dates). I will obviously be
influenced by many factors. I will endeavour to be balanced, and 
objective without promising either. The later periods will obviously have 
more detail. I will try not to be boring, but I do not guarantee enjoyment.
This is a major work and will no doubt recieve much odious approbrium.
I apoligise for the length but I feel that any shorter would have been
incomplete. I suggest saving this as a file and printing it off, it is
about 282 blocks of diskspace. Bored already ??????????


I will start at the beginning and ...............

Pre-history:
-----------
  
In earliest times there were pre-historic communities in Ireland.
Its likely that there was a land bridge between Ireland and Britain,
and between Britain and the continent of Europe. These early peoples 
were lake-dwellers etc.

Post Ice-Age (approx. 13,000 B.C.):
----------------------------------

The Ice-Age had seperated Ireland from Britain and likewise Britain from
the continent. Consequent on this was the absence of Snakes (except for
one survivor) from Ireland. Little is known about these post Ice-Age
inhabitants as they did not have writing and so did not leave "deciperable"
traces. However they were very skilled, and they did leave many buildings
for us to examine. Newgrange Mound in Co. Meath is but one. It is the 
world's oldest building. It is a massive tomb (even by todays standards)
constructed of small stones that were transported at least 50 miles to
this site (these are no similar stone deposits nearer than this).
This building is also a chronometer in that its inner chamber is positioned
so that it is lit but once a year by the sun, - at dawn on mid-winters day
(Dec. 21st). They knew the movements of the heavens so they must have
understood mathematics. There are many impressive relics of forts and
burial mounds dateing back to 5000 b.c.

Arrival of the Celts : (approx. 400 B.C.)
-----------------------------------------

This period marks the great tides of migrations from the East by various
races. It is believed that the Celts (red-headed, and fair skinned), were
natives of the regions to the southern end of the Caucases. This region
today is Eastern Turkey, Northern Iraq, and Nothern Iran and on into 
North-Eastern Afghanistan. This is the homeland of the Kurds today.
The Kurds have once or twice been likened to the Irish.
   These Celts moved west on a famous rampage. They burned the Parthenon,
and sacked Rome on their way westwards. Vercingetorix the Gaul who opposed
Julius Caesar and Boadecea of Britain were Celts. They settled Ireland
and began the great forest clearances. The Celts were a society that 
was based on herding cattle. The Celts soon had established their society
and culture on the island, and they maintained "contact" with their brethern
in Britain and Scotland.
        I must refer here to the structure of rule and law employed by 
these Celts. Land was held in community ownership. The Taoiseach (chieftain) 
was the boss as long as he was successful and as long as he was strong enough 
if he wasn't. The Chieftains were always trying to encroach upon each 
others lands. The next level up was "petty" king who was boss of the 
chieftains in his area (as long as he was able). At the next level 
(usually the most powerful level) there was Provincial King.
At the top level there was High King of all Ireland, who was sometimes
great and powerful but mostly useless and ignored.
    However, here is the hard part for most of ye. Even though the Celtic
structure was outwardly similar in nature to Feudalism, it was there 
long before feudalism was articulated in Europe, and it was inwardly
very different. The Chieftains or the kings DIDN'T own the land. There
was no money economy, and cattle represented wealth. Size and quality 
of land held by the community being ruled was the measure of power.
Another huge difference with regard to Feudalism was the rights of
succession. Sucession was not necessarily handed down from father to
eldest son. In fact all relatives of the ruler out to the third cousin
were equally eligible (if he/she was strong enough). This of course led
to messy squabbles. It was possible to kill off your ruler, if you were
eligible to succeed, and if you paid compensation to the other relatives
in decending order (the most to the next of kin, and so on down). Blindness
was also an impediment to succession (so blinding your possible successors
was often employed, this was o.k. if you paid compensation also).
    This apparent anarchy had a sting in its tail, in that it meant that
unless a community was completely wiped out it would re-emerge with a new
leader in a short space of time. This is often regarded as the reason
for the inability of the British to subdue the Irish down through the ages.

The Celts were pagan and superstitious. They were fond of festive orgies
and other occult practices. Mid-Summers night, All Hallows Eve (they gave
the world Hallowene), and mid-winters night were very significant events.
Great Celtic mythologies were articulated from this era up to the 5th
century A.D. They had a form of writing using marks on the edges of stones.
They had a very expressive form of sculpture, called La-Tean (or something
like that). Celts never had christian names, each celt had one name. Cormac,
Oscar, Fionn, Brian, etc. etc. To differentiate they often gave the 
individual some identifying "handle" e.g. Cormac Mac Art. (Cormac, son
of Art(hur)), but if Cormac had a son called Oisin he'd be know as Oisin
Mhic Cormac (Oisin son of Cormac).

  These Celts continued about their business of petty wars and internecine
raids upon each other for many centuries. The Romans thaught it wiser to
leave them be. The Celts thaught otherwise and they were fond of raiding
the Roman establishment in Britain from time to time. Of Course these Celts
were no different than the other non-Roman parts of the world at this time,
in many respects.
    Then one fine day, a renowned raider, Niall of the nine hostages, did
something that was to change everything. He browsed down the Welsh coast
and pillaged a Roman settlement. After the well-worn tradition of pillagers
he took slaves. One of his slaves was a little boy, we don't know what his
name was but he came from an upper-class Roman family. These upper-class
Romans always insisted on being called Patricians.


The Advent of Christianity:
--------------------------
Niall returned with his slaves to his home territory, and handed this
little Patrician boy over to be a shepherd on the sides of Slieve Mish
mountain. This lad was a bit of a Jesus freak, and although very young
when taken (432 A.D.) he was a devout christian as nearly all Romans had
become by that time. So here was this lad living amongst a bunch of ruthless
good-timing pagans. He grew up, and either escaped or was permitted to 
return to his home in Wales. This he did, and after the fashion of the time
he became totally smitten by Christianity, a la St. Augustine. No more
good-times, loads of penitence, and fasting, and preparation for the 
next life. He became a priest and climbed the ladder to success. But, we're
told, he always remembered the pagans of Ireland, so he resolved to save
our souls. Maybe others had tried before him, but one thing for sure, they
weren't successful. He was allowed to return to fix our wagons, and he
landed in north Co. Dublin and proceeded to Co. Meath and challenged
the Celtic festival of mid-summer's eve by lighting a forbidden fire in
advance of the one the Druids were to light on the hill of Tara. This got
him a lot of attention (publicity was something that always came natural
to evangelists). We still do not know what his name was but everybody 
has since called him Patrick. Many Englishmen often think they meet him
now and then in many parts of Britain.

   Christianity didn't convince everybody however. The Chiefs continued
as before, but they blessed themselves first from now on. THe major change
was in the creation of the monastic tradition of religious observance.
St. Columcille (or St. Columb to the Scots) was one such product and he
decided to do what the Romans had failed to do,-- bring christianity
to the Celts and Picts of Scotland. He was a prince in his day and a
bit of a good-timer too, but there is nothing worse than a reformed 
playboy. He knew his politics and he became famous. Monasteries mushroomed.
There was a boom in stone-masonry, celtic crosses were designed, etc.
These monasteries brought two very important things with them. One was
writing & caligraphy, the other was Latin.
   Europe went into reverse, with the demise of the Roman empire in the
5th century. More invaders were coming west. The Angles, and the Saxons
were rapidly expanding their controls over Britain. Goths, Visigoths, and
Vandals were everywhere. No more learning, just pillage, rape, and paganism.
Then the Irish monks who had retained Latin, started to re-evangelise Europe.
It has been said that Latin would not have been re-introduced into the
European church but for the Irish monks. Eugenius, and Dom Scotus are two
of the Irish illumeniaries of this time. Charlemange of France used these
Irish monks when he set up his university. The Book of Kells in all its
caliographic majesty is a product of this era. So also are some of our
priceless Irish treasures - The cross of Cong, the Tara Brooch, the Ardagh
chalice, the Derrynaflan chalice, etc.
   So the period after the arrival of St. Patrick is often referred to
as the "golden age" in Ireland. Now this is really a lot of bull (and we'll
hear more of this anon.). Its all relative you see. Yes at this time there 
was an explosion on learning (mostly within the monastic societies), but 
everybody was as illiterate as before, the diffference now was that the
pagan illiteracy was being replaced by christian illiteracy. The usual 
pillaging and rape and warfare continued unabated. The power of the druids
was being broken systematically. The pagan festivals were christianised
for sanitary purposes. A new breed of important animal was evolving -
the bard. Some say that the bards were the form that the druids took on
when the holy-rollers took over the superstition and occult market.
    It might seem ostentatious to claim that these bards were signigficant,
but they wielded real power. Poetry, especially satire, and genealogy
were key weapons in those days. Breeding was the main thing then (still
is in some places). Since writing was primitive and rare outside of the 
monastery, all this stuff was kept inside of heads (Bards heads) and 
carefullly guarded and handed down from generation to generation. Indeed
this oral tradition of handing down poetry in Gaelic was still practiced
up to the last half of the nineteenth century, (a long innings for a
style of recording, that emphasises its importance). Anyways these bards
sang their songs, for their patrons (the chiefs and kings). They were
not above the practice of blackmail and the terror of being satirised
by a bard was powerful. In many respects there was subversiveness in this
power, and it often acted as a balance to the power of the kings. 

The Arrival of the Vikings (890 a.d.)
------------------------------------

   These Vikings or Danes as they're often called in Ireland swept down
on the north-western parts of Europe. They were a bunch of pagans who
discovered boats and sailing and wanted to make their new hobby pay.
In school our history books thaught us that these fellows were a bunch 
of fearsome blood-curdling butchers. If they were, they were a pretty 
bad lot, as the Irish of the time were no saints, and if they were worse 
than the Irish...... Anyways they came looking for something to take home
with them at first. The Irish monasteries were good targets. Plenty of 
artifacts of great value, some of very little value- like books, and monks.
Most of what they considered useless was burned. This is about the time
that the distinctive "Round Tower" came into existence. Apparently the
round tower was a place of refuge when these pillagers came calling, as 
well as a good look-out post when they were on their way. 
    These Danes had some saving graces, they lived in close knit communities
usually beside the sea or by a river with access to the sea. After a few
generations away from home (Norway-Denmark), pillaging on the distant islands
of Britain and Ireland and the northern coast of France, the wives got upset
(by stories of nuns being ravaged, I suppose), and insisted on being nearer
to their husbands on these expeditions. So the Norsemen set up house. This
is how the first towns came into being, in what had previously been a 
loose, rural, community. These towns were "tolerated" by some of the weaker
chiefs, and anyhow there was the barter business. So these Danes were making
big strides - the arrival in town of the predecessor of the pin-stripe suit.
    Old habits die hard, and I don't mean Abbotts. In the province of Munster
(south west) a king, based at a place called Kincora (co. Clare) got some
big ideas about himself. He set out to become Mr. Big. In time he did just
that and was installed (very begrudgingly by some living, and some dead petty
kings). This fellow's name was Brian Boru. After he had got himself into the
driving seat he went about making the top job, mean something for the first
time in many centuries. This caused friction. The Norsemen had settled in
Ireland by now and were somewhat acclimatised (1000 a.d.). The Norse
communities were self-ruled and powerful in their own right. So they were
obviously not too impressed by this ageing upstart from Munster. One thing
led to another battle. It all came to a head in 1014 at a place called 
Clontarf (a middle class suburb of Dublin today) on Good Friday. Brian was
calling on God to vindicate him (all leaders do), and outside his army was
splitting Norse skulls. Brian's army was victorious. However as one of the
disgruntled Noresemn was making haste away from the battle field, he entered
Brian's tent, and ruptured Brian's skull with a well aimed swipe of an axe,
exit Brian. There was a state funeral and he was buried with all the other
saints in Armagh Cathedral.
   Many Irish people think that Brian Boru, purged the Vikings from Ireland
but this it total bullscutter. He brought them under Irish control. The
Norse towns continued to flourish, the Irish women took a fancy to the
red-bearded Norsemen, and the Irish lads took a fancy to the peroxide blonde-
bombshells,(indeed this fascination has not diminished to this day). 
They all lived happily as before, if not ever after.
   The upshot of this period was the establishment of Central power concentrated
on the high-King, and the beginnigs of the Town and city network. All this
of course was loosley controlled in a demi-anarchist manner. The power of the
high-king was still personal to each incumbent of the post. In the rest of the
world things were on the march. Charlemange had established the Holy-Roman
empire in its embryo stages, The settled Norsemen on the coast of France were
getting strong and restless and possibly tired of the new code of rule called
Feudalism that was being established by this Holy-Roman empire concept.
    The French Norsemen (the Normans) set sail for Britain in the last 
invasion of Britain before the post-WWII migrations. Willy the Bastard, 
henceforth to be known as WIlliam the Conqueror set up shop in Britain,
well England really. The Scots weren't having too much interference, and
the Welsh were fairly independent as well. None of this meant squat in Ireland,
where things returned to "normality" and the absorbtion of the Norsemen was
being completed to the satisfaction of all parties. So when one of Willy's 
successors got into a spot of odious approbrium for the "death in the 
cathedral" of the archbishop of Cantebury, not too many Irishmen were put
out by it.

The Norman Invasion (1169 a.d.)
------------------------------

Dermot McMurrough of Leinster was a king that got a bit upset when his
wife was kidnapped (she really ran off) by the king of Breffni (Co. Cavan).
He got into a huff with the high-king, one Rory O'Connor of Connaught, who
told him to piss off and not not to bother him with his marital problems.
Of course in the power play of the time, it suited Rory as he had his eyes
on the subjugation of Leinster, who was a bit too strong. They all ganged
up on McMurrough, so he split the scene.
     Dermot wanted to be restored to his title if not necessarily his wife.
He went to Wales where he came into contact with the Normans. He ingratiated
himself with Henry Le Gros, since called Strongbow. King Henry II was in a
quandry and was off doing the sackcloth and ashes bit. Now the boss of the
Holy-Roman empire in those days was the Pope. The Pope usually left the
temporal matters that he couldn't handle to the temporal rulers (the crowned
heads of Europe). Now interestingly enough the Pope of that time was Hadrian
(something or other), and he was English, in fact the only Englishman ever
to get the job. He is supposed to have issued a Bull (here it is again), to
Henry II to go and straighten out the Irish church on behalf of Hadrian and
Jesus. Despite the meticulous care that was taken of all papal bulls by the
Vatican archives, this particular Bull was never found.
    Henry sent his forces to Ireland under the command of Strongbow. Dermot
McMurrough restoration was another good excuse. The Normans landed to no
opposition in Co. Wexford, and proceeded towards Dublin. At first the Irish
ignored this invasion and reckoned to deal with it in time. Rory O'Connor
the High King didn't react until Dublin was taken, and it was too late.
The Irish had not come up against armour before and were quiet unprepared
for the military strength of these new invaders. Thus began the long and
tortured relationship between Ireland and Britain.
   There was to be one major difference from now on, and in a way Dermot
McMorrough was the first to feel it. Feudalism meant that if, Dermot was
to be restored, he had to first give up ownership to Henry II, who would
then re-grant the "tennancy" back to Dermot. This submission process to
a conqueror was never heard of before in Ireland, and the underlying 
concept of total ownership of the land by the ruler was something which
the Irish could not understand. Indeed its probably true that the relevance
of this did not sink in for mant more centuries. This Feudalism meant
many ugly changes for the Irish culture of the day. The Brehon system of
Laws were very different though no less sophisticated than the new Law
being imposed. At first the Normans spoke their peculiar brand of French
and early English, while everybody else spoke Gaelic.
    The Church too was to undergo major change. The European orders, such
as the Franciscans, the Cistercians, the Benedictines, and the Dominicans,
were introduced and the power of the Irish Abbotts broken up to establish
the strength of the "Hierarchy" as we know it today. The old Irish monastic 
church was put on the back-burner. The power of the bards was also something
that was now in jeopardy. Everywhere the Norman rulers went they subdued
the Irish in local battles and set up "keeps" and "baileys". The Irish would
submit, and then after the Normans were gone, a new ruler (remember the part
about the eligibility out to the third cousin), would establish himself and
continue as before, blissfully impervious to the previous events. This must
have pissed off the conquerors. In England at least, when the Saxons were 
defeated they accepted the fact, these Celt-Norse-Irish had a different way
of looking at it.
    This in my opinion is the beginnings of the cultural mis-understandings
between the Irish and the residents of Britain (they weren't English or
British as yet). This clash of Feudalism against Gaelic culture mixed like
oil and water. A couple of Norman Kings were to come an go, lads like King
John were to establish the system of Counties as they are still known back
in the 13th century. The seat of power was Dublin Castle, and it was here
that all rule was administered from. 

The "Acclimatisation" of the Norman's:
-----------------------------------

   Central rule from Dublin was established but it was totally inneffective.
The Irish continued to rule themselves after their own fashion and custom.
In fact the Normans who had settled in Irleand began to be more Irish than
the Irish. They adopted the dress, language, and customs. In fact Dublin
used to issue laws about dress, and bare-back horse riding, in vain effort
to discourage this integration. Meahwhile back at the ranch in Britain, the
Normans had long since melted into a new culture also. This emerging culture
was very different from the similarily emerging culture in Ireland, but it
was the regulator of Ireland nevertheless. Dublin was the only part of Ireland
that was managed according to the desires of the authorities in London.
In fact Dublin often had to protect itself from the attentions of the natives
of the neighbouring districts, both Irish and Norman-Irish. They constructed
a Palisade around Dublin to keep out these maurading Irish "savages". This
became known as the "Pale", hence the origin of the term "beyond the Pale".
   Every so often a king would send his boys on a round of "submissions"
gathering, which the locals would duly comply with, and ignore as soon as
the king's rep. was gone. In actual fact Ireland was self-ruled from the
late 12th century until the shortly before the reign of Henry VIII.
Laws were constantly being prepared in London and constantly being ignored
in Ireland. The old Celtic aristocracy system was broken down however, and
the succession system used in Feudalism was established. Ownership of land
was gradually being accepted as a concept. There was some political 
development during those times. Links with the church were often independent
of the English monarch, and from time to time frictions arose between the
bishops and the local moguls. Then there was the old-Irish (often dispossessed)
clans, and the new Norman-Irish clans, who though integrated in most ways
were different on the question of loyalty to the King. To the Norman-Irish
the king could do no wrong, to the old-irish, he was a bollocks, who should
be replaced by a nearer to hand, and more controllable bollocks of their own
kind. The petty squabbles were still fairly fashionable. No coherent sense
of national rule was present, though it is reasonable to surmise that a 
sense of cultural identity was being established. Even inside the "Pale",
the language was Gaelic, in spite of a Law forbidding its use. 
    The Britain of those days(and I'm no expert) had some things in common
with Ireland, in that it was emerging culturally even if in two or three 
different identities. The English monarch was extending his powers over the 
Welsh, who at first resisted but eventually assimilated, and the Scots who 
remained outside of the control of the English king, but were happily pursuing 
their own petty squabbles, much like their Irish cousins. Europe was developing
also. The Holy-Roman Empire was the overall structure that "organised" the
Europe of the time, but a lot of energy was being spent "liberating" the Holy
Land. The Turks were restless and the great Ottoman empire was in its infancy.
Meanwhile the literate and cultured Moors had been turfed out of Spain by their
barbaric, illiterate but well- organised masters from the Holy-Roman Empire.
The power of the church was at its highest, the Orthodox Schism had just
occurred but was viewed with indifference by the western rulers. There was
one fly in the ointment, the new knowledge being "discovered" or uncovered
by the stirrings of the Renaissance. Ireland was far removed from Renaissances
or Crusades.

The Confederation of Kilkenny:
-----------------------------

   A nice medieval city in the center of south-eastern Ireland, was about
to get its day in the Sun. The de-facto situation of English authority 
but Irish rule created a great political vacuum (something like N.I. today).
Into this vacuum stepped some key leaders. Garret Mor (pronounced More), the
earl of Kildare, of Norman-Irish stock (no relation of the more recent Garret
but just as politically "late"), emerged as the most powerful ruler in the
country. He was subservient to the English king in name only. He was a 
politician of the first order. He balanced a rope between allegience to a
monarchy that he had no cultural ties with, and the control of a community
that would have no truck with that same monarch. The church was also in on
the act, and had sent a Nuncio to sit in on the first "constitutional" 
conference in Kilkenny. This conference, known as the Confederation of
Kilkenny, sat amid a fanfare of advance publicity to reconcile the Irish
with the Norman-Irish and plan a future for Ireland (does any of this sound
familiar?????). The Norman-Irish had no difficulty in the arrangement and
a lot of groundwork was done. One issue hung up the whole thing, --- yes,
you guessed it, who was going to be King?????. The Norman-Irish wanted
the reigning monarch of England, while the old-Irish wanted an Irish king,
of old-irish or Norman-Irish stock. The Norman-Irish couldn't agree as it
would preclude their wish to remain loyal. All this was going on in the
14/15th century BEFORE the Reformation. I often feel that this is exactly 
what is going on today but now its POST reformation (author's opinion, here).
Could it be that only the Labels have changed.??????
        The upshot of all this was stalemate. The usual internecine warfare
continued outside of the "Pale", with the Confederation dragging on and on
and on. Gunpowder arrived and started to play its part in the "regulation"
of society. One of the first persons killed by a ball from a musket, was
Garret More, (sophistication is still the hallmark of the assassin). While
Ireland was being let follow its own course, the english aristocracy was
busy cutting each other up in the War of the Roses. This petty squabble
was not being followed too closely by the ordinary Irish punter of the day.
     The demise of Garret More left a vacuum as well. His grandson, a flash
Harry of his day by the name of "Silken THomas", got the top job. He was not
as clever a manouverer as his grand-daddy, and he was given to the odd
fit of pique as befits a flash Harry. This intemperance was not good, as
it got him into plenty of trouble with his lord and master the english
monarch. Silken, had many rows with the king's viceroy (vice-king, roy
being a corruption of the french Roi), over who did what. Allegations were
swapped with London, but Silken wasn't up to the backstabbing politics 
involved. Loyalty was very big with the Norman-Irish, even when it wasn't
in their interest. The norman-irish had always maintained allegience to
the english monarchy despite total cultural integration with the Irish.
Young norman -irish children were often reared in England and then re-
patriated to take over the home place. Silken went to the king of England
to put his case against the mis-rule of the Viceroy, the king threw him
into the Tower and Silken's head rolled for high-treason. Thus ended the
ascendancy of the Earls of Kildare. Now to put it in perspective in 
terms of population the Norman-irish were a small portion of the community
but they did hold most of the power and the property. The Confederation 
of Kilkenny fizzled out and came to nothing. The first stirrings of a
sense of identity were planted however, and this seed was never really
expurgated.

The Reformation :
---------------

   The period of history known to the world as the Reformation, never
happened, at least not in Ireland. Luther did his thing on the door of
the cathedral. The Renaissance was bearing fruit in the challenge to the
church's power in the way the world was being run. In Ireland the local
bosses had their own way of doing things and as long as the church wasn't
plotting to undermine their way of doing it, they really didn't care. 
Ireland was a backwater. Henry VIII was a rather horny chap who had a fondness
for religion as well as the women. Having a mistress was not his way of
satisfying himself and then there was the perplexed problem that pertains
to this day - an heir. Well the wife was not up to the job (I think that 
some say it was Henry's problem), so he needed a nullity to re-marry. Now
the church of the day said no way Jose, we can't bend the rules (though their
ability to bend has been well proven). Henry said "stuff ye", and made himself
the boss of the church also. Enter Anglicanism.
    Dublin was duly instructed to comply with recognition of this new 
ecclastical arrangement. Dublin said "yessir", and many of the Norman-Irish
agonised over it. So Henry got mad, sent over an army, and told everybody
who wanted to keep his wealth and property had better say "yessir" too.
Protectionism is another word for Feudalism (the mafioso know history).
THe vast majority of the Norman-Irish capitulated. Now Henry didn't bother
with the natives as they didn't matter that much (they had no property
or titles to be "protected"). The Irish church resisted however, and Henry
had the monasteries and churches burned, not to mention the odd beheading
and bar-b-que at the stake to cement the arrangement.
   From this time on a religious wedge was driven between the Irish and 
their Norman-Irish masters. Although a lot of the "submission" was cosmetic
on the behalf of the norman-irish it was to make an awkward political division
worse, by introducing a religious dicotemy also. Divide and rule has many
facets and methodologies. Nothing divides like a division of hearts and
minds. Estranged lovers is the closest metaphor I can employ. By now a clear
English culture was emerging and the power of the English king was being
consolidated, by property and title grants, and by the headsman's axe.
From this period on the norman-irish started to be referred to as the anglo-
irish. Henry married his seventh wife and died, and England was returned to
a "roman" monarch (Bloddy Mary). Now Mary went about the butchery of the
Anglicans with a zest that equalled Henry's. Now wouldn't you think that
Mary would have been fairly acceptable to the irish ???, well the opposite
is the case. Mary set about the first plantations.

The Tudors and Plantations :
--------------------------

    "Plantation" in Ireland still means the removal by physical force of
the indigenous population of a district and their replacement with those
of another political or religious persuasion. Within England at that time
(Caxton's printing press was working by now), there was a growing racial
identity. This racism was mostly directed against Celts or "mere" Irish
as they were described in the pamphlets of the day. Europe had been 
practicing anti-semitism for eons, and both sides of the Reformation
conflict vied with each other for who was best at it. In the context
of this racist approach the "plantation" of Ireland was undertaken. Mary
(a bit of a power-crazed demagogue), had the populations of Offaly, Laoise
and south Munster uprooted and replaced. Spenser the English poet was one
of the supplanters. This plantation failed miserably within two generations.
The natives returned and forced out the planters or allowed some to remain
as long as they were subservient to the Irish. The by now, usual process
of assimilation occurred and the plantation was subsumed into the irish
culture. Mary bought the farm, and another unholy virgin got the top job.
     Elizabeth I took over where Mary left off only now she wanted to reverse
the process permanently (religion is the worst evil of them all). The anglo-
irish must have been the most confused lot that ever existed at this time.
They were kept dancing this way and that to avoid an unkindly cut at the nave
of the neck. However a new power play was developing. Spain was set mortally
against the English, outwardly over religion, but the Nedherlands had a lot
to do with it also. The new world had been discovered, and the Irish didn't
show too much interest in boats, or round earths, except when a wreck was to
be looted. Catholicism had gone underground. Elizabeth saw to that. Many
of her anglo-irish rulers were outwardly protestant and inwardly catholic.
The general population was unreservedly roman-catholic. The church kept abreast
of world affairs and as always the priests were the best educated of the lot,
(even if it was conducted abroad in Europe). England was emerging as a nation-
state with the beginnigs of naval prowess. Portugal who had led the early
discoveries, was going into decline. Spain was rapidly colonising and raping
the new-world. England and France were trying to play catch-up.

The Ascendancy of the Earls of Ulster:
-------------------------------------

  Onto the stage stepped two powerful new leaders (each generation kept
throwing them up). One, known as "The O'Neill"- Earl of Tyrone, was reared
as a child at the court of Elizabeth I until his early teens. The other was
"O'Donnell" - Earl of Tir Connaill. O'Donnell was kidnapped as a child from
his Lough Swilly home in Donegal and taken to Dublin Castle to be reared as
a loyal subject. He later escaped from the castle and went home with vengenance
in mind. These two were contempories. They were both of Irish stock, and they
were both from Ulster. They joined forces to establish their dominance over
the country. Theirs was not any lofty national ideal to rid Ireland from the
yoke of the English monarch, but to establish their mastery over the affairs
of the land. Combined they were formidable. Elizabeth was much upset by this
development, and she was well aware that O'Neill was one of the wilyiest of
politicians. Things came to a head to head. The powerful couple refused to
comply with Elizabeth's wishes even though they repeatedly pretended that they
were going to do so. Finally exasperated, Liz, sent her favourite stud, the
Earl of Essex (another flash-Harry), with a fine army to bring these two 
rascals to heel. Essex arrived, and promptly had a party in Dublin that lasted
about six months. Liz., was pissed off at this, so she told him to buck himself
up. Essex marched off and the two Earls kicked his ass back to England, minus
his proud army. Liz., was having canaries (she never had anything else). 
Essex was tried for treason and he lost his head.
     Ireland except for the Pale was totally at the whim of the two Earls.
Spain was enlisted by the Earls to consolidated their power. A Spanish 
garrison was landed at Kinsale in Co.Cork (the furthest possible distance
from the seat of the power of the Earls. Another army (English) was sent
to rout the Spaniards before the Earls could join forces with them. The
English army surrounded the Spanish garrison, at Kinsale. Then the Earls
force-marched south and surrounded the English army, and sat back to starve
them into submission. The English position was desperate. Early one morning
they attacked the Earls positions and surprised them. THe Earls were caught
napping and routed. Certain defeat was turned into glorious victory.
    Peace was concluded, but the power of the Earls was destroyed forever.
Elizabeth was now very old (1598), and dying. She resolved to fix the Ealrs
wagons before she too bought the farm and set in motion the plantation of
the Earls lands (ULSTER). Life for the Earls was intolerable with repeated
assasination attempts, and crippling reparations for opposing Elizabeth.
FInally they gave up and left. One was poisioned in Spain the other died
in Italy. This sad end is referred to as "the flight of the Earls". Meanwhile
the fundamentalist protestants, mostly of Scottish origin were being 
encouraged to fill the vacuum left by the break-up of the power of the Ulster
clans. They were given O'Neill and O'Donnell land, if they could keep it
form the natives.


The Ulster Plantation :
----------------------

    Elizabeth croaked, and JamesVI of Scotland was given the job of ruler.
Thus the two crowns of Scotland and England were united. The First ACT of
UNION. James I of England was also of a different stock than the tudors,
whose line finished with Elizabeth the barren. James was a JACOBITE, a 
lineage we shall hear more about. The Jacobites were inwardly catholic but
publicaly protestant. As long as he was outwardly protestant the English
would tolerate him. He continued apace with the Plantation of Ulster, it
got some tiresome zealots off his hands. In Ulster the natives were powerless
to resist and were "cleared" off their lands to the less hospitable parts of
Ulster, such as the Sperrin mountains, west Donegal, and the wet lands of
Monaghan and Cavan. There was a great displacement of peoples by this
plantation. Within fifteen years the upheaval was complete. The whole 
cultural transformation was finished. What was catholic was now protestant,
and fundamentalist to boot. A new order was put in place. The old order
was reduced to sniping at the fringes. After a century of trying to
supplant the Irish, a successful formula was discovered. The reformation
had finally arrived. It is important to keep a track of the context of
all of this also. Ulster was this time a very rural place. There were very
few towns. Derry was the largest, while Belfast was a small hamlet. The
"planters" were mostly Scottish and did not speak gaelic like the natives.
Gaelic did however come to be spoken by the planters in time, if not all of
the planters. English language and culture was being developed in Ireland
from this time on. This was a period of tense religious hatred, and 
regrouping before a storm. The plantation was viewed with anger throughout
Ireland and was seen as something that all non-planters could focus against.
The Catholic church was by now a subversive force, in that its outward 
practice was forbidden, and its links to the outside world were through 
Europe and Rome. This break from the English church was to further drive
a wedge between the Irish and their rulers.


Rebellion (1641 a.d.) :
----------------------

Charles I suceeded James, and went merrily about the bankruptcy of England.
The puritans were not enamoured of his barely cloaked catholicism. A rift
was developing between the priviledged and the middle-classes. Civil strife
was growing. Throughout the 1640's a civil war was being fought between the
Roundheads (Puritans) and the Royalists (jacobites). Oliver Cromwell wanted
a strong parliament. Charlie said "jump in the lake". In Ireland sympathies
were divided three ways. Those who supported Cromwell (Ulster planters),
those who supported the king (Some Upper class Ulster planters, Anglo-Irish
land-owners, and catholic peasantry who supported him in the hope of 
catholic restoration in Britain), and the third group were those who didn't
give a damn. There were ugly religious undertones to this whole English
civil war business with popish plots and fears of counter-reformation.
In Ireland there was a rebellion in 1641 against the recent plantations.
Many Ulster protestants were butchered in the worst possible manner a la
the worst excesses of the thiry years war in Europe. (author's note:
I apologise to the readership for my lack of knowledge of this period)
I cannot recall how this rebellion was put down.
       

Oliver Cromwell Comes visiting (1650 a.d.)
------------------------------------------

    Cromwell took over in England, and he threw some silver "baubles"
out of the house of Parliament. He also decided to rid England of its
monarch. So Charlie's head went chop-chop. The papists were routed.
(how strong "popery" was in England I'll never know). So in 1650 Olly
set sail for Ireland, to finish up some popish business. He laid siege
to many Irish towns and cities, and did "the lord's bidding" every time
they surrendured. In Wexford and Drogheda, every man, woman and child
were slaughtered mercilessly. A religious purge was carried out no papist
was spared. Age was no refuge, as Olly's philosophy was "nits breed flies".
To the Irish, Oliver was an Adolph Hitler bent on the final solution, to 
the Irish. He was undoubtedly an umitigated beast. He determined to clear
all the Irish off their lands. His famous term "to Hell or to Connacht",
was the chice he gave those he wanted displaced. Connacht being the most
impoverished land in Ireland. Racism and religious bigotry were the most
fashionable evils of that time (and many times since). Racism in Ireland
was just a subset of the greater bigotry that pervaded Europe at this time.
    This period is still viewed with utter revulsion by the Irish. Oliver
Cromwell has received good press from the international recorders of history
but in Ireland, Cromwell is the very embodiment of evil. The southern Irish
regard this man as a monster, while the northern Irish would see him 
completely differently. (Maybe Hitler will be sanitised by time also).
   Slavery was another by-product of this racism. In the Carribean there
were by now well-established colonies, labour was required, so the first
slaves were being taken to fill the vacancies. THe Irish were amongst
those slaves (Barbados- Monserrat etc.). 


The Restoration (1660 a.d.)
---------------------------

   Olly couldn't live forever either, and intense fundamentalism does
not possess the stamina for a long innings. By 1660 the British were
delighted to get the king back. (What had Olly done to make them so 
desirous of this change). Charlie the second was welcomed back with
pomp and ceremony. The Jacobites were back in business (closet catholics
or not). Charly couldn't make a baby however, so the consternation and
very upsetting uncertainty (I still don't know why ) of no heir was 
furrowing brows up and down the realm. Charly bought the farm also and
James II his brother took over from him. This Jacobite was more catholic
than the earlier kings, but since he too hadn't fathered an heir the
British public were willing to put up with him. These Jacobites must've
been a pretty useless bunch. They certainly got bad press. 
    Meanwhile in Ireland hopes for a restoration of catholicism were 
rampant. The dissenting planters of Ulster were hanging on firmly to what
they had taken. These Ulster planters were a constant focus for resistance
for the rest of Ireland and the concept of removing them was gnawing at
the core of the Irish being. The Ulster planters were seen as a beach-head 
for British dominance of Ireland. Support for the Jacobites was huge,
(again - I'll never know why).
    

The "Glorious" civil war (1687/8/9) :
-----------------------------------

   James finally got lucky with the wife. He had a son - an heir. Only
problem now was, that this is exactly what the British public did NOT
want, (hard to please these lads then). Another catholic was not on.
So they went scouting for a suitable blue-blooded protestant. They had
none in Britain so they went Dutch.  William of Orange was politely asked
to usurp the throne. William being a good protestant said "sure".
    The Jacobites were enraged, but powerless. James had no support. He
ran out of London and WIlliam was enthroned in a bloodless coup, hence the
term "Gloriuos" civil war. 
    Well Jimmy ran to Ireland where the civil war became "gorious". He raised
a large army of sympathisers and set about having himself put back on his
comfortable seat. He struck northward and infested Derry. He sat outside the
gates of the city and waited for it to surrendur. After 106 days relief supplies
were brought through by sea to the beleagured defenders, and the siege became
pointless. This heroic defence of Derry by the planters is still remembered 
each year in August. This was 1689. The next year William came to Ireland
with a big army. He landed in Ulster and built up his forces. James decided
to take on William in the decisive battle for who should be king.
    This battle was fought in Co. Meath astride the Boyne River on July 1st.
(no that is not a mistake, the date is correct). James was routed. He ran
like a scalded cat to Dublin where he castigated his army to the assembled
reception in Dublin castle. One of those present is supposed to have replied
"my lord it appears you have led the charge". He was referring to how James
was the first runner to get to Dublin. James fled to France and oblivion.
    The battle of the Boyne was a very significant event for the British
monarchy in that it established the protestant succession. An Act of 
Parliament was passed to ensure that only protestants could become monarchs
from now on, this Act is still in force in 1987 (religious bias/bigotry dies
very slowly). How ever the blood and guts story forthe Irish was far from 
over. The defeat at the Boyne was far from conclusive in military terms,
although this is not generally recognised. Jacobite support was very large.
To fully understand the position we must examine the "plight" of the Ulster
protestants, they could win battle after battle after battle and survival
was ensured, but if they lost one battle anhialation was their fate. A
similar fate that faces Israel today. So we can see that the "siege" mentality
of Ulster protestants is not a new phenomenon.
    Two very large armies were still facing each other in Ireland. The Jacobites
retired from the Boyne to regroup. By 1691 the Jacobite army was restored.
French aid was promised and being prepared. The Williamite army was harrying
the heels of the jacobites as they retired west across the Shannon. The 
WIlliamites finally suceeded in crossing the Shannon, and St. Ruth the Jacobite
commander determined to give battle on ground of his choosing. The site was
Aughrim in east Galway. St. Ruth had done his job well, and the Williamites
were committed to a battle that was not of their choosing. This battle was
fierce and bloody, and the williamite position was bad. A rout was possible,
and with the Shannon at their back, there was nowhere to run to. Fate took
a hand and St. Ruth was decapitated by a cannon ball. The leadership vacuum
was decisive and the Irish flank was turned. The Jacobites had to retreat 
southwards. THis was the last great battle fought on Irish soil where two
large armies clashed. 
    The Jacobites were now commanded by an Irishman by the name of Patrick
Sarsfield, an accomplished leader and of undoubted military skills. He 
conducted an orderly retreat to Limerick city. Limerick was strengthed to
withsstand a siege which duly developed. Sarsfield was waiting for the
promised French military aid. While the siege was going on, Sarsfield 
conducted a cavalry manouver to the north first then east and south, to 
attack a siege train coming to the support of the Williamite army.
Sarsfield fell on the siege train without warning, destroyed it completely,
and returned back to Limerick thorugh the Williamite lines. This piece
of military elan, left the Williamite army in poor condition to oppose the
Jacobites. News of a french force having sailed was rife. The Williamites
sued for peace. Sarsfield negotiated a treaty with the Williamite commander.
Three days after both sides had signed this treaty the French force arrived.
One of the treaty conditions was that Sarsfield and his commanders would
leave. Sarsfield complied. The British tore this treaty up a few days later.
This treaty was a foolish piece of trust on Sarsfield's behalf, like most
good soldiers, he was a lousy politician. Sarsfield had all the trumps but
he considered id dishonourable to change his word as an officer and a 
gentleman.  Britain was not as accomodating. Sarsfield departed to the utter
remorse of the Irish people. Many fine soldiers, veterans of two great battles
and many minor ones departed with him. This event and the ones that were to
follow like it for the next 100 years is referred to as "the flight of the 
Wild Geese".
         With Sarsfield gone and the French with him, guess who had all the
trumps now. The breaking of the treaty was an unspeakable sin from the Irish
perspective. That Britain could never again be trusted was ingrained and
hard-wired into the Irish soul. "Remember Limerick" became a catch-call.
Irish nationhood was emerging. Britain cracked down on the Irish and to
a degree on the planters also (for being dissenters and not anglicans).
The next 100 years are regarded by the Irish as the most sorrowful and 
appalling. This was to be the period of the Penal Laws. 
     Catholics could not own land, or any property. A catholic tennant
could not leave his tennancy to one of his sons, if he had more than one,
unless one of the sons was to become a protestant (then he got it all).
This law was designed to break up holding by making them to small to survive
on. Religious practice of catholicism was punishable by death. Priests were
hunted down, and executed. Catholics were not to be educated. The Protestant
church was the Established Church, everybody (including catholics) had to 
pay tithes to the protestant church. No matter how valuable a horse was owned
by a catholic, he could not charge more than �5 for him, and he was required
to sell him if that price was offered by a protestant, (many horses were
purpously crippled rather than parted with). The people were crushed by 
unbearable poverty and cruelty. Their landlords were all British who usually
lived in Britain. The peasantry were resilient however, they hung on grimly.
    Subversion was the only avenue open those who would seek to oppose this
oppression. The catholic church was already underground. The people's allegience
to catholicism was stubborn in the extreme. Catholic priests were educated
in Rome, Paris, Louvain. They returned to Ireland and continued to teach
catholic doctrines and many other academic subjects to the peasantry.
The "hedge" school became an institution where learning was fostered on the
side of the roads. Youngsters were reared on christian doctrine and greek
and latin. Some who could not speak english, could converse in Latin instead.
But the vast majority were kept in abject poverty, and illiterate ignorance.
    Meanwhile in Europe the counter-reformation had come and gone. France was
firmly established as a catholic monarchy. Louis XIV was finishing off
Versailles. Richeleu was the operations manager of France and the three
musketeers were enjoying their retirement. Peter the great was dragging
Russia into the 17th century "kicking & screaming". The Holy Roman emperire
was settling on the crowned head of Austria which was now repulsing the
turks out of Europe and setting itself up as a major power. Prussia in
northern germany and along the Baltic was rising in strength. Britain was
busy ship building and colony building (particularily in north America).
Spain was long since gone into a rapid decline. The Dutch were beating
the pants off everybody in trade and exploration, Tasman,and/or Van Dieman
were heading into the south seas looking for a place to stay.

Grattan's Parliament :
--------------------
   Since earliest times (Magna Carta or thereabouts) Ireland had a rubber
stamp parliament. This Parliament was the preserve of the landed (and
protestant) gentry. They posed and postured from time to time but they had
no teeth. Poyning's Law gave the veto to Westminister over any law passed 
in the Irish Parliament. Henry Grattan was one of those parliamentarians
who champed at the bit. Towards the latter half of the 18th century this
parliament began to strut and swagger and insisted on more authority and
independence. Despite this the parliament was irrelevant as far as the
people were concerned. Their plight was desperate. Industries were 
growing and mills were being set up all over England in the early stages
of the Industrial Revolution. Laws were consistenly passed forbidding the
establishment of similar industry in Ireland. Wool was in good supply,
but it had to be exported raw and unprocessed. Similar laws were being
passed to restrict Ulster protestants to limit competition. Flax growing
and Linen however was permitted. Ulster set up a thriving Linen industry.
and the industrial revolution was begun. This industrial revolution was
however confined to this part of Ireland. 
   Grattan and his like-minded parliamentarians set up a militia called
the Irish Volunteers. Not much of a group really, but they had pretty
uniforms to cover their pot-bellies. Later developments were to make this
a more subversive force. This militia was not illegal as militias were the
fashion of the day at the time and for at least another 100 years.


Theobald Wolfe Tone and 1798 :
-----------------------------

   The Americans had gotten very upset for a long time now over the practice
of asset-stripping to make the Londoners comfortable, (a colonial policy that
some argue is still going on). They got angry and upset and we all know what 
happened.
      What may not be known however is why this was important. You see 
feudalism was by now diluted enough to be palatable. In the old days,
the feudal structure ordained it that all power (spiritual and temporal)
came from God, and that God mandated his earthly rep. (the Pope) to 
distribute this power. Now the Pope gave the temporal part to the crowned
heads of Europe. After the reformation the crowned heads took this temporal
power upon themselves and by-passed the pope-part,(good old-fashioned, -
shaft the middle-man ethics). Its not generally recognised today that the
crowned heads (of the world) in the mid-18th century still held this, power
from God business to be UTTERLY TRUE. The were the blest, who were burdened
with the duty of rule by the almighty. Now America was on side 2 of the moon,
as far as the world was concerned in those days. What George Washington
did was utterly unthinkable in that he challenged God's right to delegate
authority. The crowned heads of Europe were willing to ignore this "temporary"
and very distant blasphemy. 
      All over Europe however and in particular France the "yoke" of 
aristocracy was unbearable. This was very true in Ireland also, except that
the aristos were not around, the London season, and the Derby etc. kept them
away from "home".
    A new revolutionary philosophy was being promulgated and in the aftermath
of the British surrendur at Yorktown in 1782, the writing was on the wall.
France erupted in a cataclysm. France was the heart of the universe, the very
core of aristocratic monarchy. The french revolution sent shock waves through
Europe. It is very difficult for us to understand with the views of 1987, just
how traumatic and catalystic that this revolution really was. It was also a
secular revolution, madame la Guilloutine made no distinction between the head
of a bishop and that of a duke, the neck of a peon was equal to that of a
Jacobin etc. A new order was created, based on the principle of equality,
and the primacy of the wishes of the people. The classic model of the
greek republic was to be restored.
    Ireland had many who were inspired by this development. Wolfe Tone,
Robert Emmet, Henry Joy McCracken and many more. These were protestants
of the landed gentry, and well educated. Many like McCraken were Ulstermen
of planter stock. Ireland was long since ground into the mire and the peasantry
were ready to rebel. Britania ruled the waves since the mid 1700's, but she
appeared powerless before the new order. Wolfe Tone, through his contacts
in high places in Paris, enlisted French military aid. A huge French expedition
was dispatched to wrest Ireland from Britain. This expedition sailed into
Bantry bay in the south west but was unable to disembark as a storm from the
east raged unabated for a whole week. Fate in the form of the elements twarthed
the rising hopes of the Irish. THe expedition could not remain at sea for fear
of a British naval surprise. The country was aflame with talk of uprising.
THe Authorities in Dublin were very nervous. The strength of british garrisons
was increased all over the country. The local yeomanry (pro-British militias)
were strengthened. By now the Irish Volunteer militia was firmly in the grip
of the "republicans". Lord Cornwallis (the loser of Yorktown) was sent to
Ireland to "maintain order". Cornwallis decided to provoke uprisings before
they were fully prepared. He used atrocities to do this. After a series
of killings and burnings the outraged peasants of Co. Wexford went ape.
  They captured a number of towns and butchered any loyal subjects they could
lay hands on. THey were a rag-taggle and ill-prepared lot. They were cornered
outside of Eniscorthy at Vinegar Hill, and defeated. Those captued were
hanged, drawn, and quartered (the fashion of the time).
    Meanwhile a second French expedition sailed, much smaller this time,
and landed at Killalla in Co. Mayo they too had some small and localised
successes but they were always on a loser. They were easily defeated at 
Ballinamuck in Co.Roscommon. The French were repatriated but the Irish had
been "treasonable", so more necks were stretched. Frustration also befell
Henry Joy McCracken. He was captured and dealt with in the same fashion,
as were his fellow Ulstermen (and protestants), who had the temerity to 
oppose the crown. Finally Wolfe Tone was captued on board a french frigate 
in Lough Swilly in Co. Donegal. He was not accorded his status of officer
of the french army. He too was sentenced to death for high treason, but he
took his own life in jail. He is buried at Bodenstown churchyard near Naas
in Co. Kildare. He is regarded as the father of Irish republicanism. He is
also the first known and tangible national figure. Four years later Robert
Emmet attempted to do what nobody had tried to do for 500 years, attack the
seat of power in Dublin Castle, to cut off the head of the snake as it were.
His preparations were uncovered,(through paid informers) and he and his
plotters were arrested. He was hanged drawn and quartered in Thomas Street
in Dublin outside St. Annes church. Emmet was a handsome intellectual, and
a quiet brilliant orator. His utter love of country is still admired today.
He was a bold and daring man, and his speech from the dock after being
sentenced to death is a piece of the most remarkable English ever penned.
He was the "darling" of the Irish.
     Rebellion had failed. The British were very upset with the way that
things had developed in ireland. They moved to dissolve the Irish Parliament.
By many inducements and cajoling, the Irish parliamentarians were inveigled
to cooperate in their own demise. They had undoubltedly the finest Parliament
building in the world at that time, (the present House of Commons was not yet
built). Since the vast majority of the Irish parliamentarians were landed
gentry and pro-British they approved of the Act of Union of 1800. This Act
joined Ireland to the united kingdoms of England and Scotland. The red
diagonal bars were added to the Union Jack and the Harp was placed in the
bottom left of the british royal coat of arms,(the Harp is the symbol of 
Ireland and not the shamrock(national plant)as is popularly believed).

Daniel O'Connell :
----------------

    Daniel O'Connell was a giant of a parliamentarian. He had been in France
and had seen the worst excesses of the revolution. He was a brilliant barrister
and was a devout catholic. He was also rich. He immediately set about working
to repeal the Act of Union and the Penal Laws. His experience as a barrister
was to be very useful. He would only consider working within the system and
using peaceful means. His oratory got him elected to Westminister. In those
days the electorate was the common tennant farmers (usually illiterate) and
the small middle class of property means (rateable valuation of more than
�40 - quiet a bit in those days). Voting was public and stated orally. The
fashion of the time was for the "absentee" landlord to return at election
time and offer himself for election. His tenants would be told to march
(often 40 miles and more) to the husting, and declare their vote. Now all
tennants voted, and all tennants made the right choice (for the obvious 
reasons). O'Connell challenged this in Co. Clare and through his personal
charisma he induced the tennants to vote for him en-bloc, on the grounds
that the landlord couldn't evict them all. The catholic church was four-
square behind him in their by now talented subversive manner. Victory
was assured. O'Connell took on legendary proportions. In Parliament he was
a member of the radicals (with the young Disraeli). His oratory was 
by all accounts excellent. He labelled Prime Minister Peel as "orange Peel",
in reference to his pandering to the Ulster protestant. 
        The Industrial revolution was charging forward. Ulster was at last
being permitted to develop its industrial potential (in the proper hands
of course, don't you know). Linen, and Steel were growin fast. Belfast was
at this time a small city of less than 40,000 people, but the explosion
was about to take place. At this time the Irish language was being rapidly
replaced by English. Ascendancy politics ensured that catholics had a 
menial role in the society. Illiteracy, ignorance and poverty was to be their
lot, (they were of course to blame for their own problems). Ireland, apart
from a few areas was to be an agricultural bread-basket to the burgeoning
industrial giant of Britain. Agriculture did not need brains in those days,
just brawn. and the wealth of agriculture was to be concentrated on the
absentee landlords who owned most of the land anyhow. Tennants were allowed
to live (in poverty) on the land as long as they worked it for the master.
They could have a small house and a plot for potatoes and grass for a cow.
O'Connell breathed fire in debate and was very respected throughout Britain,
and also despised as a catholic subversive. 
    He tabled a Catholic Emancipation Bill in the house and finally got it
passed in 1829. This was hailed up and down the length and breadth of Ireland.
The Church was back in business in the open. O'COnnell held huge public
rallies (500,000) was often exceeded. The authorities were very perturbed.
These rallies were a very potent display of "possible" force. It was only
a matter of time before they would try to undo him. 
    Ireland in 1841 had a population of 8 millions, the catholic/protestant
ratio was even more biased in favour of catholics then, over 7 to 1. This
fellow was mobilising a pretty substantial population movement. The possibilty
of a huge catholic movement was viewed with deep suspicion by the Ulster
protestants, and old fears were being re-kindled. Now that industry was
being permitted the Ulsterman's lot had improved and he was now better off
than his catholic neighbour (usually portrayed as ignorant, dirty, and
slovenly). This was rich pasture for the RACISM. Division was being 
fostered, and blind hatreds were being fed off. Pogroms became more common
in Ulster. O'Connell was endeavouring to "drive a coach and four through this
vile Act (of Union)". The Irish identity was firmly established and the 
religious persecution was gone though the physical persecution based on 
religion persisted. 
   The authorities banned a meeting planned by O'Connell for Clontarf in
Dublin (remember that place?). The people were outraged at first an then the
significance sunk in. Tension was raised to fever pitch, would O'Connell
defy the ban, if he did there would be certain massive uprising. O'Connell
had always insisted on pacificism, and in the face of this ploy it was thaught
that he might abandon his stance. O'Connell called off the meeting and despair
swept the great movement. It was seen as a defeat throughout the land on the
catholic side. O'Connell's power was broken not enhanced by this move. Those
were different times and this type of step was seen as cowardice, the mahatma
was a full century away. Britain once again had stuffed the Irish face in the
mire. Anger welled up and the movement for armed struggle took root once more.
O'Connell was old by now anyway, and his power broken he went into physical
decline also. He died in 1849 and was accorded the largest funeral ever seen 
in Ireland, in death he rekindled the spark of deep admiration that had made
him the undisputed leader of the Irish people for thirty years.

The Great Famine :
----------------
   
     As an Irishman it is not easy for me to write about this part of the
history of my country. It fills me with emotions that are sure to cloud 
reality and it will be difficult for me to be balanced on this portion of
my country's history. It is a story of shame, and degradation. A heinious
crime was perpetrated and the ripple effects are still there in the psyche
to this day. It is a demon that defies exorcism. Societies can carry 
complexes that far exceed the human span of womb to tomb. Such a complex
dogs the Irish mind still (highest per-capita contribution to the Bob
Geldof famine appeal for Etophia �2 or $3 per head of population). We feel
that we are not too far removed from this event, yet we live in a land of
obvious abundance and beauty. (My great grand-parents would have been born
about this time).
     Napoleon had come and gone, Europe was a thriving industrial giant,
Africa was being exploited by the "great" colonial movements, (asset-
stripping was still in vogue). America was building itself up slowly,
the west was still to be won, and the south was selling loads of cotton
and importing slaves. China was being prised open for plundering. India
was the jewel in the crown and the British navy was stronger than ever.
Russia was still a sleeping giant to the east that was being kept in check by 
a strong Prussia.
     In 1845 a disease called "the blight" struck the potatoe crop. This
crop was the staple diet along with buttermilk of the vast majority of the
Irish peasantry. Meat consisted of bacon once or twice a year. Vedgetables
took up space for potatoes and couldn't be stored like the humble spud.
Wheat, and other corn were grown by the landlord as his "cash-crop", and
likewise all cattle were for export to feed the hungry industrial city 
dwellers. Going to the Derby cost money, and that was the main source of
finance for these absentee landlords. Going to the Derby was about to cost 
lives also. 
     The crop of 1845 was wiped out and with it many starved. There was no
succour. The peasants were blamed for their own misfortune. The old and the
young die first in these situations. THose that survived this apalling
calamity trusted in spring and a new crop in 1846. They died in their 
thousands on that hope as the crop of 1846 was wiped out too. The stronger
tried to escape the calamity through the emigration ship. Bad ships and
bad captains took almost two million Irish to america. Many died en-route.
Conditions were terrible, and the destitute and emaciated were not strong
enough for the passage. Coffin-ships was the adjective applied.
    Laissez-Faire was the political rage of this era. It was criminal that
two million Irish were permitted to starve to death by an indifferent 
political establishment while enough food to feed twice the population of
Ireland was being shipped out of Ireland at the same time. On this issue
while Britain was going through the relative prosperity of the early
victorian period, this disaster was being visited upon the "United
Kingdom". Oh sure, Ireland was an unhappy place, how unhappy are you
when your dying from hunger. This period must go down in history as the 
single most obnoxious crime "permitted" by the government of her most
britainic majesty. (That is the author's opinion and if you think the 
scale was bad, on scale terms it was far more devastating that that
applied by the perpetrators of the Holocaust on the Jews in the 20th century.)
   In 1847 the same thing happened and it was not until 1848 that the disease
was controlled. By then Ireland represented the nearest thing to the
aftermath of a neutron bomb explosion - no physical damaged, just people
damage).   In 1851 the census of population showed 5 millions. Over 3 millions
had left or died. Call it what you like --- I call it a monstrous beastiality.
Enough, I feel drained after writing this.


The Rise of the Church influence :
---------------------------------

    Ireland was leaderless and emaciated. The genocide that Oliver Cromwell
was trying to create was almost perpetrated by a crop disease. Those
who had gone were usually the physically and mentally strong. They went to
start a new life in the U.S. and they did very well. They left, not through
desire to go, but through necessity - they were driven out. THose who 
remained were not inclined to fight. The Catholic church siezed its moment
to fill the power vacuum. Strident romanism and pulpit pounding
originates in this period, in the immediate post-famine era. Now that the
church was being tolerated and they had a more prominent leadership role,
they did what they always do and cosyied up to the "establishment", but
at a discreet distance. The obvious reaction to this "roman" leadership was
strident protestant leadership. Roaring Hannah and other "fear of God "
pulpit pounders had a ready audience throughout Ulster. Bigotry and 
division was fostered on both side of the sectarian divide. Unions for a
while were gaining ground and uniting workers of both persuasions, but 
catholic priests were vocal against them (and that suited the mill owners
and the politicians who were percieving a threat to their positions).
    WHereas the Irish peasants had been a fairly "ammoral" lot in pre-
famine times and weddings were arranged at early ages to avoid "bastards",
the post famine period was the very opposite. Victorian values were 
being formulated in a massive conservative movement. The Catholic and
Protestant churches could both identify with this. Catholic churches sprung
up all over Ireland (with the parish house beside it for the P.P. and his
curate). Religious fervour was promoted left right and center. Such fervour
was not seen prior to the famine. I believe it was a scarred and guilty 
conscience looking for some "forgiveness" for having upset the almighty who
visited the pestilence on the potatoes. That kind of superstitious thinking
was very prevalent (remember the old Celtic fondness for superstition and
the occult). This fervour lasted well into the 1950's.  My generation 
feels less disposed towards this form of "madness" - maybe we are far 
enough removed from the dark past.


The Fenians :
-----------

    Since the fall of O'Connell, the militarist approach was being
cultivated. Some men came together to found "The Fenian Brotherhood".
This was a secret society with the single object of seperating Ireland
from Britain by the use of force. The Fenian reference was to the old
celtic mythological "knights" of Fionn Mc Cumhaill.
     THe Fenian movement became very powerful and widespread. The 
authorities tried to infiltrate it and had some success, but its 
organisational structure made it difficult to penetrate. THis structure
also made it almost unmanageable. The fenians decided to Act against
Britain and a few isolated incidents of insurrection were arranged.
Most of the leaders were captured and some were hanged, others were 
"transported" to Van Diemen's land (Tasmania prison colony). This
did not destroy the movement however, and they continued to flourish.
Irish- Americans were by now very supportive of the cause of Irish freedom.
Money and arms were shipped over to fight the English. Raids were planned
on targets in England to instill fear in the British public. Irish people
suffered because of this. Three Irishmen were hanged in Manchester for
the killing of a constable in a raid on an police wagon to free a Fenian
prisoner. THey were innocent but standards of justice were poor then.
The "Manchester Martyrs" added fuel to the support for the Fenian movement.
    About this time an attempt was made to break out Irish prisoners from
Clerkenwell prison. A bomb was planted against the wall of the exercise
yard, and set off during exercise. The blast was massive. Over sixty were
killed by that bomb and that is still by far the worst "terror" bomb ever
exploded in Britain. That was in the 1860's.
    This violent movement is the precursor of what was to come for over the
next 100 years. The Fenians were intense nationalists. They had no outlet
for their energies within the political process. Access to the British 
Parliament was the preserve of the priviledged few. Schooling had arrived
in Ireland and literacy was now widespread. O'Connell had started the
national school system and it was run by the catholic church (still is).
Literacy brough awareness and insight. The soul of the Irish nation was
under threat. The language had been discouraged for centuries and was 
in rapid decline. The British vision of Irish history was being flogged
about and the school texts were controlled. Revisionism was obvious.
    But there was a national university now that did not have the elitist
approach of Trinity College Dublin, so academics were becoming conscious
of an Irish past. THe peasants on the other hand had their own bush telegraph.
For centuries the gaelic tradition of handing down poetry and legends from
generation to generation by word of mouth was the throbbing folk-soul of
nation. In the mid 19th century this "tradition" started to be written down
for posterity. An awakening to identity and particularily culture was taking
place.

Agrarian Strife :
---------------

    The Irish peasantry had been burdened by "rack-rents" and absentee 
landlords for many centuries by now. A movement called the Land League
was set up by Michael Davitt to campaign for agrarian reform. Captain
Boycott whose estate was near Westport in Co. Mayo was one of the first 
targets of this movement. The peons used their power of "strike" on him
with a new twist. He was utterly ostracised. Evictions were commonplace.
civil strife and reprisal were the order of the day. Anyone assisting the
land agents were similarily ostracised. It worked, and Boycott became a
new word in the English language. After much agonising tennants were 
eventually allowed to OWN land. There were limits to the size of acerage
they could hold but the breahthrough had been made. A Land Commision was
established to administer the distribution of land. The grip of the landed
gentry was being broken. The movement for agrarian reform had often been 
violent and many died, thousands were evicted from their hovels, but 
for possibly the first time ever justice was "extracted" from Britain.

Parnell, Home Rule, and the Celtic Revival :
-------------------------------------------

     Charles Stuart Parnell was a protestant landlord. He was heavily
involved in the Celtic revival. Towards the latter part of the 19th
century a cultural reawakening (revolution) swept the Irish countryside.
Huge interest was expressed in the irish language and the games of hurling
and football. The Anglo-Irish gentry had a deep interest in this also.
In fact the Landlords had fostered hurling for a long time now, and they
had no difficulty with the language as those that lived here always used
it to converse with their tennants. It was time of many common bridges 
between cultures, but lurking in the background was the spectre of religious
bigotry. The language movement was constituted as was the G.A.A. for fostering
the games. Parnell became an M.P. and started to motivate the people politically
as O'Connell had done before him. He supported the Land League and was a 
member of the Central Council of the G.A.A. He became the leader of the "Irish"
party at Westminster. He embarked on a huge campaign for "Home Rule", to break
the Act of Union of seventy years earlier. He had many allies in the House of
Commons. He adopted the filibuster in debates as a tactic for wearing down his
opponents. Gladstone and the liberal party, courted his favour. The irish
party at this time had the balance of power in the House. The Home Rule bill
was tabled, - shelved, - tabled, defeated, - and tabled again etc. etc. 
    The northern protestants were outraged by this Home Rule idea, and began
organising themselves against it. Tensions ran high at rallies. The Fenians
were beavering away and the "Simian" vision of the Irish was being fostered 
by the British media - particularily Punch. The racist undertones were there
along with the religious bigotry, and the political arena was totally soured.
The Home Rule Bill dragged on and on, blowing hot first, then cold, and then
hot again. It was an agony, and the Gethsemene was Ireland itself. The deep
divisions were being driven in between the Ulster protestant and the rest of
the country. By now the North was a huge industrial giant. Shipbuilding was
growing faster than the supply could meet the demand. Engineering works and
chimney stacks sprouted everywhere. Belfast was a teeming city where only a
large town had existed sixty years earlier. The Industrial revolution had
arrived. This was in sharp contrast to the South where mills, lathes, and
cogged wheels were unheard of. Life was still the same as it had been two
hundred years earlier. The peasants had got to own land in the 1870's, and
were only now at the point that the northern dissenter was at in 1700.
    The relative prosperity of the northerner with his southern counterpart
was the itself reason to divide the two traditions. Although this was only
relative, it was emphasised as being for reasons that were not necessarily
true. E.G. because of their protestant heritage the northerners were more
industrious, the southern catholics were priest-ridden and slovenly,
(this type of racist claptrap was common).
    Parnell brought Irish influence right to center stage in British politics
in a way that has not happened since. His public appeal ratings were enormous.
The Catholic church of course was deeply suspicious of his power (it challenged
thier own). In the 1890's Parnell started up a relationship with a married 
woman that eventually was reported in all papers as divorce proceedings
were going through the British courts. Conservative catholicism siezed this
opportunity  to attack Parnell and his morality. It is a disgraceful period
in the history of the church in Ireland and one where they wrested back their
influence over people. No words of mine can adequately cast aspersion on the
perpetrators of that crime. Parnell's power was destroyed. The Irish were
divided and torn between admiration for the man and the church's attacks of
the "loose" protestant morals. Remember this was the time of strident Romanism.
The G.A.A. backed Parnell in a rare display of courageous integrity and nearly
paid the price of extinction. The church's support for the G.A.A. was withdrawn.
    Parnell went the way of O'Connell and died in the late 1890's (or there-
abouts), his power broken, but this time from within and not without.

1900-1915
---------

     A period of peace since the Fenian uprisings followed. The Celtic revival
moved into top-gear. The Irish were dominating English literature. Learning
was becoming available to most of the population for national school level.
Home Rule was alive and kicking and was being tabled again in the House of
Commons. THe Irish Party was now being led by Redmond. Lord Randolph Churchill
was a strident Unionist, his phrase "Ulster will fight and Ulster will be right"
is still a catch-phrase. The northern protestants had by now organised
themselves into a political movement called Unionism. The Ulster unionists
had a staunch ally in the Conservative & Unionist party of Great Britain
(Mgt. Thatcher finally dropped the "unionist" part of that title in 1987).
Lord Edward Carson (the prosecution barrister at the Titanic enquiry) was
an articulate and charismatic figure in this movement. The Ulster Volunteers
(a protestant militia) were formed to protect the Union. Home Rule was 
portrayed as Rome-rule.
     In the outside world thing had moved dramatically. Prussia and France
had fought two wars. Britain's empire was at its zenith. Germany had become
united under Bismark. German expansion was under way. Naval competition was
starting up. THe U.S. had ended slavery, and was urging the emigtants to
come to her shores to build a great nation. Railway networks had given 
huge impetus to the industrial revolution. Inventions were mushrooming all
over the place. Life was being made easier for greater numbers of people. 
Great ship canals were constructed or being constructed. Trade was flourishing.
There was massive demand for ships and steel. New Innovations were on the
stocks - cars, and soon aircraft. Heavy industry was thriving. Ireland in the 
south was an agricultural backwater, a bread-basket to Britain. The South
African Boers had been finally defeated. "Rule Britania - Britania, rule the
waves, Britains, never, never, never, shall be slaves ".
    THere were many Britains on the threshold of slavery. THose who were fodder
to the great mills were a subtle form of slave, one who lived a narrow existence
centered on his/her work (often working a sixty hour week) and the weekends
consisted of Sunday only (the Lord's day in every possible sense of that word)
Nothing happened on Sunday's except religion. THose who were tied to the land
had a more blunt form of slavery to contend with, long hours of backbreaking
toil and constant fear of bad times and eviction. The latter were in some ways
better off than the former. THeir lives had more scope with the good times 
being brought their way by machinery (for those who could afford it) but flight
from the land was occasioned by the replacement of labour. Sundays in the south
were more liberal in that after the lord's observance had been fulfilled and
the needs of the beasts or soil tended to, there was time for active leisure
such as sport. The G.A.A. cornered this market of human resources. In northern
Ireland leisure activities such as sport (or boozing) were banned on the Lord's
day.
     THe Language movement was flourishing, political stirrings in Westminister
were warming the blood vessels. The Ulster Volunteers were countered in the
South by another militia called the Irish Volunteers. The latter paraded on
Sunday's with hurley sticks for rifles. Dark ominous clouds were forming over
Europe and nationalism was rampant everywhere, and Ireland was no different.
The Balkan's were in a mess, and the sabres were rattling. In Ireland the
sabres were rattling as well. Home Rule was debated again in Westminster and
this time its passage was likely. The Conservatives was in opposition, and
Bonar-Law was in open support for the Ulster volunteers. A covenant or pledge
of support for the Union was drawn up and signed by a million northern 
protestants. In 1913 the Home Rule Bill was finally passed. The Ulster response
was the gun. The "Clyde valley" ran weapons into Larne to supply the
Ulster Volunteers. Tensions were at fever pitch. Now there was an armed 
protestant militia (illegally armed at that). In that year the British army
was ordered to go north and disarm the Unionists. The British army headquarters
was at the Curragh camp in Kildare. The Officers refused to carry out their
orders - the only mutiny in the history of the British Army officer corps.
They went unpunished.
        When the Fenian Brotherhood had declined it had fitfully continued
as "the Irish Republican Brotherhood", (IRB). In 1910 a new political force was
set up called Sinn Fein (we ourselves). Sinn Fein was set up a man called 
Arthur Griffith. It was a movement to try to give political expression to
the cultural revolution that had taken place. It was a dismal failure.
It was peopled by some members of the IRB and some cultural extremists.
THis party had no mainstream appeal, that was the preserve of the Irish party
at Westminster. Another potentially great leader was emerging at this time
by the name of James Connolly a socialist (this new marxist doctrine). 
Connolly had worked extremely hard for worker organisation in the trade union
movement. He was very successful in northern Ireland until the churches got
going. In Dublin of 1913 there had been a general strike and civil strife
to achieve Trade Union recognition. Connolly had set up a tiny socialist
militia called the "citizen army" whose slogan was "We serve neither king
nor kaiser, but Ireland". The prospect of an Irish civil war was within a
whisker and nothing like this has happened since (except possibly Aug. 1969).
A small sailing boat called the "asgard" landed guns at Howth in Dublin to
arm the Irish volunteers. Erskine Childers an Englishman, was the owner of
the vessel (he wrote the book "The riddle of the Sands in the early 1900's,
the first spy novel in the Ian Fleming mould).
    As the cauldron was about to go out of control in the middle of 1914,
Archduke Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo. A bigger bomb had gone off.
    SInce Home Rule was at last law, the British government asked for the 
support of the Irish Party for the war effort, a similar request was given
to the Ulster leaders. THese were euphoric days. Civil war talk evapourated,
the brutal Germans were raping the low-lands and eating babies, the" freedom
of small nations" needed defending. The Irish party called for support for
Britain in her hour of need. The promise of Home Rule implementation upon
victory being the prize to be fought for. The Irish, North and South marched
off to their destruction in British army uniforms, (my own grandfather survived
Gallipoli). The disgruntled extermists were marginalised on both sides of the
divide.


1916 :
----

    Two years of War (particularily Gallipoli) had drained white the manhood.
THe easy victory had not materialised, and while agriculture was booming, 
there was an air of despair. Casualties were atrociious, nearly every community
was being touched. Britain was threatening conscription. The Irish would not
have it. Home rule was a forgotten topic. 
   Meanwhile the exteremists were considering the traditional approach of
enlisting Britain's enemy to come to Ireland's aid (as with Spain and France
in the past). The IRB and to a lesser extent Sinn Fein were run by a group of
"Celtic Twilight" dreamers, who wrote poetry. It was more of an academic
fraternity than a political one. The IRB had approached James Connolly with 
a view towards co-operation on an armed uprising. The Irish Volunteers (those
who had not gone) were still parading on Sundays with their hurley sticks.
Some guns were in their hands since the "Asgard" event but they were for the
most part unarmed and uninitiated in affairs of the gun. Germany was then
approached through the person of Sir Roger Casement (knighted for his great
works of charity in Africa). Casement was given a ship-load of rifles and
machine-guns with ammunition with which to start the uprising. The Volunteers
were being forewarned and talk of insurrection was rife. On good Friday 1916
the "Aud" was to land her deadly cargo and on the follwing Easter Sunday the
rising was to erupt, nationwide. 
      It was very poorly organised and the ship was intercepted by the British
navy off Co. Kerry. The ship was scuttled. Casement who had landed from a
German submarine was arrested. The leader of the IRB (Prof. Eoin McNeill)
issued a national order suspending the rebellion in the Sunday papers.
Patrick Pearse and the inner council was against the cancellation. They 
hijacked the movement and ordered the "manouvers to be carried out on Easter
Monday instead". This Monday was a bank-holiday and everything was shut down.
THe British officers had by now relaxed since the "aud" was captured, so they
all went to the horse races. Pearse and Connolly moved into Dublin with their
rag-taggle army and occupied strategic locations throughout the city. The
Proclaimation of the Irish Republic was read out on the steps of the G.P.O.
in Dublin, and the shooting started. The British reacted swiftly, regiments
of the Sherwood Forresters were diverted from their journey to the front to
Dublin. The fighting lasted six days. A few thousand died in total. 
   The rebellion was supposed to have been a national affair but due to the
countermanding order in the Sunday papers there was little support outside
of Dublin (Galway between the DEC plant and the towns Athenry and Ardrahan
being the only other place). The rebellion was always doomed to failure.
Pearse always believed that a "glorious blood sacrifice" was necessary to
fire the imagination of the Irish. He was committed to a failure in many
respects. The insurrectionists had behaved as a military force, and 
atrocities were not committed. The usual mob went on a looting rampage,
when law and order broke down.  When Pearse issued the surrendur order the
rebels duly complied, and paraded to the Rotunda Hospital where they handed
up their weapons. THe leaders were promptly arrested and stripped naked
in front of their men. Then they were led off to be tried by military
tribunal on the charge of high-treason. Four days later the first executions
took place. For over a week fifteen of the leaders were shot in groups of
two or three. The other prisoners had been marched off to internment in
Frongoch in Wales, to the curses and spits from a section of the Dublin
population (traitors for stabbing the brave boys in the trenches in the back).
   As the executions proceeded, the country froze. Yeats the poet wrote,
"everything has changed, changed utterly, a terrible beauty is born".
Pearse was probably right, his blood sacrifice was now offered, the country
was outraged. These men were seen as intellectual dreamers, and were being
executed like animals. Hatred was boiling up, and the northern protestant
was not the focus anymore, it was Britain herself that was the great Satan.
THe IRB had organised the rebellion but it was a sign of its "invisibility"
that it was Sinn Fein that was blamed in the media of the day. Sinn Fein
members were prominent (one Eamonn DeValera was a garrison commander under
Pearse), but they had no "official" role. THe Easter Rising as it came to be
known was the work of the Irish Volunteers and the IRB with assistance from
Connolly and the Citizen Army.
    The leaders were all executed (15 were shot and Casement was hanged in
August), except for one - DeValera. His sentence was commuted, it is largely
believed for the fact that he was an American citizen and Britain desperately
wanted the U.S. to come to their aid in WWI.
   What is generally not known however is that the aftermath of the Rising
was marked by a national disquiet (north and south) about the possibility
of the introduction of Conscription. Large rallies against conscription
were being held, especially in 1917.

1918 - 1922 :
-----------

    The war ended. The troops came home. Europe and the social order was
completely changed. A new system of government was put into being in Russia.
France was devastated. A generation of men were wiped out. The war machines
were being wound down, and the victors were sitting down to make the losers
foot the bill. De-mobilisation was put in train. Women had a new status now
in the western democracies. THe suffragettes had got the vote.
    Ireland had opposed conscription and won. Home Rule was no longer on
the table. A commision was set up by Britain composed of Irishmen to look
at ways of implementing Home Rule. It was general knowledge that those who
sat on that commision were British first and Irish second. This commision
had one or two meetings and that was it. The excuse to shelve Home Rule
had been found. 
    Meanwhile Sinn Fein was basking in the reflected glory of the 1916
Rising. Everybody believed the media reports of the Sinn Fein "inspired"
rebellion and in disgust at the executions,(and the conscription threat it
must be said), they joined up. Sinn Fein became a massive political movement,
almost by accident. DeValera was in Frongoch internment camp, and a by-election
was being held in East Clare. As an M.P. could not be imprisioned in those
days, Dev as he came to be known was put forward as a canditate. His opponent
was from the mainstream Redmondite party (the old Irish party of Parnell).
Dev won a landslide victory that was like a clarion call to the country.
Political shockwaves were felt up and down the country. Dev was "sprung" from
internment by his election. Now Dev was a very polished mathematician of no
mean ability. In 1918 he was elected as Chancellor of the National University.
He was now the president of Sinn Fein and was free to organise his party.
He did not take his seat in Westminster (it involved taking an oath of 
alliegence to the monarch). Dev was a devout catholic, a language fanatic
(which he was not in his youth), a political philosopher (republican), and
a violent revolutionary. He fully supported the armed struggle to establish
the republic declared on Easter Monday 1916.
   In 1918 there was a British general election. As this was a U.K. event,
the election also involved the Irish seats. Sinn Fein put up canditates in
nearly all the seats being contested. Their policy was abstentionism( from
Westminster), and the establishment of the Republic. Sinn Fein swept the 
seats in a landslide of immense proportions, 84% of the votes cast. The
seats not won by Sinn Fein were mostly North-East Ulster seats. This was
the last all-ISLAND election in Ireland. The die was firmly cast against the
Union, for once and for all, and now it was cast for a revolutionary force.
Sinn Fein refused to go to Westminster but instead invited the Irish MPs
(North and South) to form an Irish Parliament in Dublin. THis was set up
at a meeting in the mansion house in Dublin, needless to say the Unionist
MPs did not show up. This parliament was called "the first Dail". On the
day that this parliament sat at the end of 1918, two Royal Irish Constabulary
(R.I.C.) policemen were shot in an attack on a cart-load of gelignite (TNT)
at Soloheadbeg in Co. Tipperary. The attacker was Dan Breen. This is regarded
as the first shots in the "War of Independence".
    Sinn Fein had set up a broad political movement that was prepared to use
force to achieve its aims. The party delegated the work of revolution (war)
to its newly established military wing, the Irish Republican Army, the IRA.
Dev was the obvious political leader of all he surveyed. His leadership was
unquestioned, some of his inner circle were well known and some were not
(in particular his Army Council). The Dail ratified its program for government
and promptly went into hiding. Dev went to the U.S. to raise funds for the
war, and was given a ticker-tape parade in New York (not bad for a 
revolutionary). He was openly received in the U.S. by officials and dignitaries.
Millions of dollars were raised for the armed struggle.
    Meanwhile the situation in Ireland got very ugly indeed. Britain mounted
a police action (troops would have recognised the "war" declared by Sinn Fein,
within the U.K.). De-mobilised soldiers were offered a chance to serve in 
this semi-police force to quell this unrest. This new force had a mixture
of military Kakhi, and Police blue in their uniforms and they were promptly
labelled as the "Black & Tans", after a famous pack of hunting hounds in
Co. Tipperary. Their official title was "the Auxiliaries". They were supposed
to assist the police (RIC). THroughout 1919, 1920, & 1921, thousands of
incidents took place all over Ireland. Ambushes on police and Black & Tan
movements, reprisals by the B&T's, house burnings, shootings, and downright
thuggery. People arrested in possesion of arms were usually tortured for
information, charged with high-treason and hanged. THe IRA would kidnap 
RIC offiers and hold them as hostage for somebody being hanged, and then
shoot the hostage in reprisal for the hanging. Informers had been a thorn
in the side of the Irish revolution for centuries, and this period was the
same. The IRA punishment was a kangaroo court and a punishment shooting
(behind the ear). Atrocities were perpetrated all over the place. Public
house owners were often shot by the British as running houses that were
frequented by rebels. In Galway a curate was called out on a sick call
but never returned (my own grandfather found his body in an very shallow
grave three days later - no fingernails and the face was unrecognisable
after being dragged behind a Crossley tender (truck)).
    The savagery was unbridled and nobody was safe. From personal knowledge
(I have gleaned from an old-IRA man), it was the returned soldiers from the
European war that were the most valuable in the armed struggle. As ex-soldiers
they were rarely suspected of IRA sympathy, their houses were "safe" from
raid and inspection, and under fire in ambushes, they knew their business.
Michael Collins was the Chief of Staff of the IRA and an Dail Deputy (T.D.),
having won election in the Westminster election. He was not a very public
figure and was a brilliant tactician, and ruthless wager of guerilla warfare.
Furthermore there were Irish in high places in Whitehall and London. Collins'
intelligence was excellent. He often had fore-warning of British intentions
and movements. Bloody Sunday was such a fore-warning, where 13 British 
intelligence officers were shot within the space of 1 hour all over Dublin.
The reprisal was a B&T attack on a football match in Croke Park with machine
guns. British endurance was wearing thin as was the Irish appetite for the
struggle. After the burning of the Custom House in the center of Dublin in
1921, the British declared a truce.

The Truce and the Treaty of 1922 :
--------------------------------

    Negotiation of an Anglo-Irish Treaty was offered by Her Majesty's 
goverment (HMG). Lloyd George was in charge now. Talks were accepted by 
Sinn Fein. London was agreed as the venue, but Irish trust in the British
was very thin. Fear of a talks breakdown and subsequent arrest of the 
leadership (and execution) was very strong. The Dail ratified its team
for the talks, but DeV did not go. This is since viewed with aspersion 
by a good many Irish people as being cowardice. Collins went as did six
or seven others. (Sean Mc Bride founder of Amnesy International, was 
employed as a dispatch runner during these talks). THese talks dragged
on for many weeks. Clearly there would have to be compromise. The
negotiators were kept in London for the duration of the negotiations
(I don't know why this was insisted upon). There had been vicious pogroms
in Belfast and other N.I. areas during 1920 and 1921. Rome-Rule was the
vexed Ulter question. Objectives for these talks were never put down in
ink, but I can speculate (and a historian should not speculate).
   The talks concluded and from reports and rumours getting down to the
street level there was deep anxiety abroad. The negotiating team returned 
to Ireland with the package. Six counties of Ulster to stay within the
U.K. proper, a boundary commision to reccomend changes to the border,
the establishment of the Irish Free State with its own Parliament (the 
Dail), as a dominion of the Crown, and as a member of the commonwealth,
with the monarch as its head of state. Certain port installations in the
Free State were to remain in British hands also. Monetary reparations
were to be made to Britain to compensate for land taken into Free State
control, and an Oath of Allegience was to be made by Dail members on
taking their seats.
   The split was complete, there was an outcry against the partition
of the country. Those in favour of the settlement were mostly moderate
in political philosophy and tired of the warfare. Needless to say most
of the negotiators were in favour of the package that they helped to draft.
DeV was seen as negative and radical by his opposition to the partition,
and the "you wouldn't go to London" label was applied liberally. Dev's
position as the undisputed leader of the country was gone. A new star
was born in the form of Collins (who had been a shadowy figure up to this).
Collins was the architect of the War of Independence and his military
prowess was at last being recognised. He had gone to London and come back
with a package that would bring peace to a tired nation. Political 
arguments were the order of the day up and down the country, former comrades
came to blows over the "package". The Treaty was presented to the Dail
for debate and ratification or rejection.
     Now there was a movement of political moderates in the Sinn Fein
ranks loosly referred to as  "the U.C.D. club". Sinn Fein was very broad
in its political appeal and this broadness was obviously unsustainable,
even though it was formidable. THe U.C.D. set were W.T. Cosgrove, Kevin
O' Higgins and Prof. Eoin Mc Neill (of the 1916 countermanding order).
They formed a clique in support of the Treaty and debated accordingly.
Dev was opposed to partition pure and simple. There was an agonising
debate, full of emotion, and finally a vote - a tiny majority in favour
of the Treaty. Dev walked out of the Dail, and his followers departed
with him.

The War over the Treaty (Note :An Irish civil war was always supposed to be 
between the North and the South up to this, and therefore I do not call
the civil strife in the Free State of 1922 a "civil-war"). :
---------------------------------------------------------------------------

    When Dev walked out a vacuum developed in the Dail. The Treaty had
been passed, so it now fell to those who remained to formalise the 
settlement with Britain. In order to formalise the agreement it was first
necessary to set up a government. W.T. Cosgrove was "elected" leader of
the Provisional Government of the Free State. He picked his cabinet,
and people like Collins (minister for defence and Army Chief of Staff),
O'Higgins (Justice), and McNeill (Education) were major players. A new
party breaking away from Sinn Fein was formed by Cosgrove called Cummann
na nGaedhael.
Dev was considering his options outside of the
Dail (a grave mistake in my book), and public meetings in opposition to
the Treaty were being set up. There was a general call for a plebiscite
on the ratification, but no provision was made for one. It appears that
a plebiscite at the time would have gone against the Treaty.
While Dev was pondering his next move, the rug was pulled from under him,
by his own radicals. A party of republicans occupied the Four Courts 
building in Dublin. Well known veterans of the war of Independence were
involved, Rory O'Connor, Liam Mellowes, Sean McBride (still alive) and
many others. They wanted a 1916 style rebellion. The Provisional 
government called in the Free-State army (the IRA was now supposed to 
have incorporated itself into the Free-State set up, which did not
happen). The insurgents in the Four Courts claimed the title IRA on
behalf of Sinn Fein. Collins was sent to deal with this and he promptly
got some artillerty pieces from the British and pounded the Four Courts
to a pulp. The insurgents surrendured, and nobody had been killed on
any side. The "Irregulars" as these anti partition forces were now to
be called were imprisioned in Mountjoy jail.
   The events of the Four Courts had tied Dev's hands and country wide
armed opposition to the Provisional government was being advocated. Dev
made the mistake of vacating the Dail, and a leadership vacuum was bound
to be filled. Guns came out and in an incident outside Wynn's Hotel in
Dublin, a pro-Treaty T.D. (MP in Britain) was shot and badly wounded.
The Provisional government sat in emergency cabinet session. During
that long cabinet meeting, the news arrived that the T.D. had died.
Kevin O'Higgins proposed a motion to execute four of the Four Courts
prisoners in reprisal (one had been his best man at his wedding a couple
of years earlier - Rory O'Connor). The proposal was to execute one prisoner
for each province. The proposal was passed and four were selected.
Sean Mc Bride was a cellmate of one of those chosen. The next morning these
four _ Rory O'Connor, Sean Barrett, Liam Mellowes, and Jim McKelvey were
executed by firing squad (the uncle of the fullback on the Irish rugby team
today was the officer in charge - three coups de grace were necessary).
It was a shocking and totally immoral decision that the whole cabinet must
bear responsibility for. They executed men for the crimes of otheres, 
without trial or charge, the ultimate crime - Institutional murder.
    The news was greeted with singular horror, especially when the names
became known. What is referred to as the Irish Civil War was well and truly
on. The anti-partition side was larger in numerical support but lacked
formal recognition and access to arms. The Free State was not so restricted.
Michael Collins was back being a soldier after an uncomfortable period as
a politician. Friends fought each other, families were rent apart. Murders
of pro-Treaty sympathisers continued, but the republican force was waning.
The Provisional governemnt was to execute a further 73 republican prisoners
by firing squad. Michael Collins was killed in an ambush in Co.Cork in a
bizarre incident that has left some questions unanswered. His loss to Ireland
was very great indeed. Had he lived, things might have been very different
indeed. He was not renowned for his moderate views (some might argue that
his political views were almost non-existent). He was first and foremost
a soldier, in his time he had been a ruthless terrorist, devoid of compassion
for his enemies. His dalliance with politics was short-lived, and not
spectacular, his dalliance with warfare is of legendary proportions. I don't
doubt that he'd have been very awkward in a moderate peaceful Ireland, I can't
envisage how he'd have reacted to it and I could be very wrong.
    The warfare fizzeled out and after the shooting dead of Liam Lynch on
a Tipperary mountainside by Free State soldiers, the guns were laid down. 
Dev was locked up along with his followers. 

1924 - 1939 :
------------

    In prison Dev had time to think and go back to his mathematics. He had
been excommunicated by the church for his anti Free-State stance. The church
likes to back a winner. When he was freed in 1924 there was unease in
government circles as to what would now happen. In 1924 Dev was still the
leader of Sinn Fein. At the annual meeting of that party he advocated the
resolution of the partition issue by peaceful means only and a return to 
the Dail (which involved recognition of Cosgrove's gvmt.). His position was
rejected by Sinn Fein, and he resigned and started his own party to be
called Fianna Fail. Most of the then Sinn Fein people followed him. Sinn
Fein was now reduced to being a marginal political force. Sean Mc Bride
became chief of staff of the IRA which was still a wing of Sinn Fein.
In 1924 the minister of Education resigned in protest of the scrapping
of the "Boundary Commision" by Britain (which was a treay condition).
THis went largely ignored. In 1927 the minister for Justice, Kevin O'
Higgins was assasinated by two men on his way to mass. (he had been 
despised since his execution of the four prisoners at the start of
the "civil war". (It since transpired that it was two Dublin Gaelic
footballers on their way to play Wexford in Gorey that did it - it was
a spontaneous thing, they spotted him out walking, stopped their car, got
out and shot him, went off and played their match, this story broke in
1986).
      In the election of 1927 Fianna Fail won a large number of seats
but not enough for victory. Dev & his fellow deputies entered the Dail
(with guns in their pockets - they expected arrest). Dev prefaced the Oath
of Allegience to the monarch by calling it an empty form of words and 
proceeded to swallow it, as the Cumann na nGaedhal members had done before
him. It was an unedifying loss of face in the eye of the public but its
effect was short-lived. In 1932 the election returned Dev to power. 
He immediately refused to continue paying the annual land annuities to Britain.
Britain responded with a trade war and massive tarriffs on Irish goods.
Irish agriculture was in ruins but the people were staunchly pro-Dev.
Dev removed the Police commisioner from his post and replaced many pro-treaty
appointments in the public service. There was outcry against this from the
former rulers. Public disorder especially at political meetings was commonplace.
The sacked commisiner was put in charge of an organisation called the National
army comrades. They adopted a form of uniform of blue-shirts after the
fashion in Europe, and they announced their intention of protecting public
meetings of Cumann na nGaedhal. They were fascists and they followed the
usual pattern of big rallies and fascist salutes. They held their meetings
and there was widspread disorder. Dev tried by banning uniforms but the courts
ruled that a blue shirt does not constitute a uniform. The leader of the
movement ODuffy was a buffoon and not easily controlled and his public 
outbursts became embarrasing, even to Cumann na nGaedhal. THe moveemnt 
fizzled out in the face of government opposition.
   Dev meanwhile grew in international stature as a statesman, and he became
president of the League of Nations. He made repeated efforts to convince HMG
to withdraw from the ports still under British control, and he succeeded 
with the last British presence at Spike Island in Co.Cork departing in
1938. He had for many years now been working on the draft of a Constitution
for an Irish Republic. He had started when in jail in the early '20s and
by the mid 1930's he had completed a terrific amount of documentation, his
personal papers are immense. In order to put the Constitution in place
howeverit was necessery to change the Free-State structure first. In 1936
Eddy the something or other was fooling around with Mrs. Simpson and Britain
was in a dither over it. The King abdicated and the next morning Dev summoned
the Dail in surprise emergency session. He had obviously planned this move
well in advance. Since the king had abdicated he proposed removing the king
as titular head of the Free State. Cumann na nGaedhael were mortified. John
A. Costello said "but the king is the guarrantor of our freedom". Dec was 
accused of leading his foolowers "in a bog of error". Dev had his was and
the post of Governor General was aslo abolished.
     In 1937 Dev put his Constitution to the people. It was accepted 
overwhelmingly, by almost landslide proportions. It was both a good and bad
constitution. Dev's devout Catholicism was reflected in Article 44 and in the
social structures proposed. Divorce was specifically banned. Dev's
republicanism was also there in Articles 1 & 2. The influence of the U.S.
system of checks and balances was very obvious. On the whole it was a 
document that would stand many tests in the the next 50 years, its short-
comings making media news from time to time but on the whole a good 
framework for democracy. Acceptance of the Constitution did not permit its
implementation as the Free State was not yet a republic.
    Storm clouds were building up over Europe and talk of war was everywhere.


1939 - 1946 :
-----------

   Upon the outbreak of WWII, Dev proclaimed Irish Neutrality as official
government policy. The terms of this were to be equal treatment of the
protagonists, and resistence to any invader. Mobilisation was ordered,
and 150,000 men were put into uniform. Sean Lemass was appointed Minister
of Supplies. A tiny merchant navy was assembled, and rationing was introduced,
as was strict government control of the media. When the war deteriorated from
the British aspect in late Spring of 1940, Churchill made a demand for the
return of the ports held by Britain under the Treaty of 1922. Dev said
"get stuffed" and that it would breach our neutrality status. Invasion by
Britain was expected and would have been resisted bloodily. In 1939 the IRA
had been active in planting bombs in Britain and there had been pogroms in
Belfast in the late '30s. To preserve neutrality Dev ordered the IRA interned
in the Curragh military prison, to prevent a British pretext for invasion.
Those IRA who offered their "parole" were released. FOr a time as the German
army threatened Britain, an german invasion was expected and it too would have
been resisted. Dev intended to call for support from the other side if one side
invaded. Many german spies who tried to link up with the IRA were imprisioned
during the war as were airmen in big numbers from both sides. Allied airmen
were always allowed to go astray near the border however. At one point early
in the War, Churchill made a vague promise to Dev of unity in the event of
Ireland entering the war on the allied side. Dev rejected this offer as 
being like the offer of "home rule in 1914 that never materialised.
    For a time things were bad in food terms as the tiny merchant navy had
great dificulty in supplying the nation. Many of the ships were sunk or
badly damaged by attack from both allies and axis forces. Most aerial damage
was inflicted by Allied forces (British cannon shells were discovered lodged
in coal bunkers). Many sailors died. The war dragged to its conclusion but
Dev was stubborn to the last in the policy of neutrality, and even went to
the German embassy to offer his condolences on the news of the suicide of 
Hitler. Churchill attacked Irish neutrality in this V.E. day speech, and the
country was outraged. Dev waited a few days to respond and when he did you
could hear a pin drop in every household in Ireland. It is regarded as Devs
finest speech and it reminds CHurchill about "the freedom of small nations 
and in particular one small nation" (a reference to the WWI war slogan in 
Britain).
   Northern Ireland had since the early '20s been self governing with
its own parliament at Stronmount outside Belfast. Unionism was 70% of the
political establishment. The Police were now called the Royal Ulster 
Constabulary (RUC) and they were backed up by an armed  protestant police 
reserve called the "B Specials". It was in almost every sense a protestant
statelet administered by protestants for protestants. Catholics had few
opportunities. Housing was atrocious. Gerrymandering was rife in local 
electoral structures. (Derry was 80% Catholic yet Unionist always had a
majority on Derry council.) Property rights were necessary for the right to
vote. Unemployment was almost exclusively the preserve of Catholics.
   During the War the North of Ireland did NOT have conscription like the
rest of the U.K. Many men went to join the British army (as did even 
greater numbers from the South). Amazingly the medals (victoria crosses) in 
that war to Irishmen all went to Southerners except for one and that went
to a Northern Catholic. The North was to be an agricultural bread-basket 
and an agricultural revolution was put into action. The North was also the
base for supporting inbound British convoys from the U.S. and in late 1942
the U.S. army build up for D-Day was beginning and the yanks were billeted 
in N.I. Ships for the war were being turned out rapidly by the Belfast 
shipyards. 
     The Dev policy of neutrality was popular, and in hindsight is regarded
as Dev single biggest contribution to thhe country. While neutrality is
still a government policy it is just that, and is not enshrined in the
Constitution or on the Statute Book.

1946 - 1959 :
-----------

   Post war Ireland moved into a strange new and exciting world (I was
born). Ireland had escaped the ravages of Europe, the people had been kept
blissfully ignorant of the developments going on. A sort of Idyllic 
isolationism had gripped the country. It was to have its downside too 
however. Europe was re-building itself and once more the wheels of industry
were turning. Ireland was left behind, still living twenty years in the past.
The outside world was very different now but the Irish somehow thought it was
still as it was in 1935. in the election of 1947 a new party had emerged
called Clann na Phoblachta. THis party had Sean McBride (now gone from the
IRA) and Dr. Noel Browne in its ranks. THis new party with a coalition
of the Center Party and Cumann na nGaedhal (now called Fine Gael) was
given a majority. Dev was out of office. John A. Costello of FIne Gael
was appointed leader of "the Inter-Party" government as it came to be known.
Dr Noel Browne was appointed Minister for Health and he proved to be an
outstanding politician but one that came before his time so to speak. THe
Irish were not ready for this great man and the catholic church was 
outspoken against him. It was a muddled time and post war Ireland was
still rural and poor. Emigration was rife (especially to Britain where
rebuilding was going on). John A. Costello went on an official visit
to Canada in 1949 and in a surprise and half-reported move he declared
Ireland to be a republic. THis was unexpected (especially in the light
of his Dail speech in 1936 on the role of the king). Ireland was
henceforth to be known as the Republic of Ireland. The inter-party
government was brought down by internal divisions over the "Mother &
Child" social welfare scheme being proposed by Dr. Browne, in 1951.
Dev was back in the job. 
    The 1950's were a poor time when Ireland was stagnant in many ways.
Rural life was not the way of the future, but Devs celtic twilight image
was still holding sway. Dev was turfed out again in 1954 and another 
inter-party governemnt formed. Emigration got worse and worse and reached
its peak in 1955. The labour demand was unable to absorb the flight from the
land that was being caused by mechanisation. Rural electrification was 
proceeding apace (a kind of revolution of its own). In 1954/55/56 the IRA
was again active in carrying out raids on border police stations in N.I.
The B Specials cracked down on the catholic population, arrests were made
and many were hanged. The Irish government was unable to prevent this
skirmishing. In Belfast there were ugly riots at this time also. Lord
Brookborough was the N.I. Prime Minister and an unmovable Unionist and
a bigot to boot. Dev was his counterpart in the Republic in some respects.
The time of both of these two had long since passed, but they were hanging
on strongly.
    The second inter-party government only lasted 15 months and Dev was back
in power in 1956. In 1959 Dev resigned as Taoiseach to let a younger man
take over. Dev had been in the top job since 1917 an innings of over 40 years.
He was still chancellor of the National University. Sean Lemass was now
appointed as Taoiseach and a new age was born. Sean T O'Kelly the president
term of office expired in 1959 and Dev ran for the job. He walked into the 
position of head of state by defeating Kevin O' Higgins of Fine Gael. Gone
but not out.

1959 - 1969 :
-----------

  Ireland was changing rapidly, and plans were laid by Lemass for a new Ireland
of industry. The idustrial expansion of the sixties and seventies was laid
down in 1963 by Sean Lemass. John F. Kennedy of the U.S. visited Ireland in
1963, to a happy settled country that was beginning to re-build. It was
probably inevitable that the new state would take a long time to get going,
but it was now starting. In Northern Ireland, industry was starting to 
change also. The heavy industry was winding down, the large mills were 
outdated and synthetic fibres were replacing old materials. Unemployment
was on the increase. Very little had changed politically in the first
forty years of Unionist rule. THere was no percieved need for change, as
Unionism was in an unassailable majority. Brookborough was gettin on in 
years however and in 1964 he stepped down for a younger man called Terence
O'Neill.  In the U.S. the civil rights movement of the early sixties was
achieving great things and a similar movement was gestating in N.I.
THis civil rights movement was seen by Unionism as a front for catholics.
There were many prominent protestants (Ivan Cooper) in the N.I. civil
rights movement. Civil agitation was undertaken, new public authority houses
were occupied in Cookstown Co. Tyrone and a demand was made to give them
to poorly housed catholics and not protestants as had been earmarked for them.
    Within 18 months there was a massive change that nobody was prepared for.
Those two men were the catalyst that did it. For forty years there was ugly
confrontation between the North and South. Partition was being fostered, 
people were being geographically seperated and cultural polarisation was
being emphasised (the great sin of partition was being perpetrated).
   Then one day in 1965, Lemass (who often drove himself around) drove to
Stormount in a surprise move that was obviously planned but totally 
unexpected. He met with O'Neill in Stormount for a few hours and then 
drove back south again. It was all done before the media had time to hear
about it. The next day the papers were blanketed by this gesture of
"recognition" for the N.I. state by Lemass. In the North the Unionists went
ape for a while. Extreme Unionism was not obvious in those days and there
was only one Unionist party. A young self-styled clergyman leading a 
break-away church called the Free Presbyterian church was baying like
a wounded staghound - Ian Paisley had arrived. His outbursts were quiet
ridiculed at the time as publicity seeking opportunism, in the mould of the
most enjoyable pugilist of that time called Cassius Clay (later Mohammed Ali).
  FIve months passed and in another surprise move Terence O'Neill returned the
compliment by visiting Lemass in government buildings in Dublin. It was 
treated in Ireland as the dawn of a new era. Those two were heroes and their
courage was acclaimed. In N.I. however O'Neill was seen as a traitor, and he
paid the price, he was forced out of office by his party backroom. In 1967
unknown to the public Sean Lemass was in poor health and he too resigned
and in a noe typical Fianna Fail leadership struggle for his successor a
compromise canditate was elected, the soft spoken Cork charmer Jack Lynch
minister for Finance, and holder of six succcive all-Ireland medals.
He was chosen after the youthful George Colley and Charlie Haughey had agreed
to differ. Industry was finding its roots and emigration was slowed to a 
trickle. In the North however change was being stubbornly resisted and the
civil rights movement was growing at an alarming rate. Paramilitarism in the
shape of the IRA was a thing of the past.


1969 - 1974
-----------
 
     In 1968 the Nationalist party was the only political party representng
catholic interests in N.I. They were affiliated to the civil rights movement.
Gerry McAteer was its leader and another Belfast socialist was also promintent
by the name of Gerry Fitt M.P. AUstin Currie, and Ivan Cooper were the leaders
of the civil rights movement proper while Michael Farrell of Queen's Univ.
Belfast was another socialist associated with this effort. Protestant para-
militaries (UVF) were very anti this movement. The protestant police and 
especially the reserve (B Specials) cracked down on their activities. SOme
isolated incidents of shootings (of catholics) took place. THese, and other
intimidations of the civil rights movement were giving publicity to the 
movement. In Oct. 1968 a civil rights demonstration was banned by the N.I.
Home Affairs minister. There was outcry and on Oct. 5th the march went ahead.
T.V. was there in style. Gerry Fitt was at the front of this demonstration. 
The police and B Specials behaved like crazed monsters and beat the 
demonstrators to a pulp. THere was outcry everywhere and the N.I. statelet
was on the world map in T.V. terms and its image was very bad indeed.
   In spring of 1969 a march from Derry to Belfast was organised and at
a location called Burntollet a protestant mob was permitted by the police
to attack the march. THis disgraceful action was also on the small screen.
Questions were being asked. Jim Callaghan of the Labour Party as the British
P.M. Chichester - Clarke was the N.I. P.M. Tensions were running high.
    In the Republic there was much hand-rubbing in glee. The civil rights
movement was achieving much for the catholic community and international
attention was being focussed on Unionist "justice". The civil rights
movement was successful where the gun had failed.
    The proverbial shit hit the fan on August 12th 1969. The catholic
community of the "Bogside" in Derry lashed out in return at the "Apprentice
Boys parade". This parade was the annual remembrance of the lifting of the
siege of Derry in 1689. It was like most Orange order parades a consitent
exercise in insensitive coat-trailing and triumphalism over their Irish
underlings. Derry was long since an Irish city, and massive riots ensued.
The B Specials were sent in but for the first time ever they were repelled.
That night riots erupted in Belfast but this time the catholic enclaves
were being assaulted by Protestant mobs. Houses were being burnt and pitched
battles were being fought with stones, bottles, and petrol bombs.
   The next day the B Specials were beaten back from the hastily constructed
barricades in Belfast and Derry. The plight of the Belfast catholics was
not good. THere were many shooting incidents and all guns were on the
protestant side. B Specials were under orders not to fire but many handed over
their weapons to protestant rioters. Seven Catholics were shot dead in Belfast
and whole streets were burnt out. Derry once again held firm from the police
assault, and the international press were on hand to record everything that
was going on. Jack Lynch ordered Irish Army onto alert and called up the 
first line reserve. The Irish army was in a bad state after years of neglect.
Twenty thousand men were mustered and sent up to the border to wait for orders.
Refugees were flooding south, and medical aid was sent in to the Bogside.
A possible invasion of the North (especially Derry and Newry) was being
considered and indeed it was expected. THe Republic was a hushed place in
those three days. On the 16th the British government reacted (under the
N.I. Act they couldn't move unless asked and up to that the riots were an
internal matter for N.I.) Britain applied pressure on N.I. to "request"
assistence to pre-empt a move from the Republic which would have meant a 
whole new ball-game.
     THe British army was sent in and immediately they took up positions 
between on the barricades, FACING the police. They wore helmets and their
bayonets were fixed. They were welcomed with open arms by the besieged
populations. THe British intervention was seen to be on the side of the
communities and the civil rights movement and against the Stormount 
establishment. The British P.M. visited the Bogside enclave a few days
later. Jim Callaghan was welcomed like a Liberator. The N.I. government
was in a bad state and its image was in the pitts. Catholic enclaves
in Belfast and Derry were turned into no-go areas for the police.
    While all this had been going on there were a couple of interesting 
points to remember. The IRA was seen as having let down the Catholic
community by that community. The IRA was almost non-existent and in
a state of dissarray, the civil rights movement had stolen their thunder.
There was internal strife within the IRA over the state of their 
"readiness" for what happened. An internal struggle was developing over
the political philosophy of the IRA, some favoured socialism and others
would not countenance it, saying that the IRA was not a political movement,
but a military one. A second important point is of course the control of
N.I. and in particular the political control of the British Army. What was
not understood in the beginning was that this control was totally in the
hands of the Unionist government of N.I.
    This was to cause serious problems within one year. Chichester -Clarke
ordered the British army into the catholic enclaves to search for guns.
This was a one-sided business, and the catholic community soon made the
areas no-go for the British army also. The mood was totally changed
and the co-ooperation with the army was obliterated. 
    The IRA had an internal struggle and a split came in the organisation.
The Provisional IRA was set up as a breakaway from the "official" IRA.
The Official IRA was marxist in political approach. THe Provos on the
other hand wanted war. In 1969 Jack Lynch had earmarked �100,000 for
relief in N.I. for the catholic community. THis money was sent up and is
believed to have fallen into the hands of the IRA. THe IRA started to
have a say in the struggle from now on. In 1971 the first British soldier
was shot dead by the IRA. Raids on the Catholic communities were now at
fever pitch. Also in 1971 the N.I. Act was suspended by Ted Heath, and
direct rule was introduced from Westminster. THe B Specials were disbanded.
Another reserve, this time a military reserve (the Ulster Defence Regiment
- UDR) was set up. This in time was to become a protestant based force,
and one that still operates in public and mounts checkpoints (like the 
old B Specials). Many members of the UDR have been shot or blown up by the
IRA in the last 15 years, and many members of the UDR have been convicted 
of sectarian murders of catholics.
     In late 1971 the "Arms Scandal" broke in the Republic. Jack Lynch
was prompted by Liam Cosgrove to sack two of his cabinet. Charlie Haughey
and Niel Blaney were being implicated with the supply of arms funding to the
IRA (the �100,000). ANother minsiter Kevin Boland resigned his post and his
seat in the Dail in protest at Lynch's action. The disquiet within the
Fianna Fail party over the inaction of Lynch in Aug. 1969 was out in the
open. Two camps of opinion were in evidence, one more militant and more
isolated in Haughey and Blaney and the backbench, the other was more 
moderate and mainstream - that of Colley, Gibbons and O'Malley. Lynch was
in the middle and applying copious amounts of glue. Haughey and Blaney
were charged with illegally mis-appropriating government funds, and with
offences relating to illegal arms deals. The opposition was in full cry.
Haughey and Blaney got off on technicalities. Blaney set out to start his
own party. 
     Up North in August 1971 the practice of Internment was introduced.
Large numbers of catholics were rounded up and put into Long Kesh Internment
Camp. This got a lot of bad international press, some inmates were inside
for over four years - without charge. The name was then changed to the
Maze prison to "respectabilise" the process. Bombings and shootings were 
happening with daily regularity. The British Army was increased to 18,000
strong and new legal powers were introduced. Jury courts were abolished 
(jury intimidation was rife). At this time the British army committed its
worst atrocity when the 1st Parachute Regiment opened fire on a peaceful
demonstration in the Bogside of Derry. 13 were killed, and the international
press were there. There was a white-wash tribunal of inquiry, and the 
officer in charge was decorated by her majesty. This was regarded as the
second "Bloody Sunday". In Dublin the mood of the Irish was very angry,
there were huge demonstrations and the British embassy was besieged.
There was nobody in there at the time, the crowd rioted and burned
the embassy down. In time this outraged opinion died down.
    In 1973 there was a general election in the Republic. A coalition of
Fine Gael and Labour was returned to power, after the "Arms trial" had 
dominated the election campaign. Ireland was by now a thriving industrial
base. Many international industries were attracted by capital investment and
tax advantages, (DEC was one, and the first in the electronics sector).
    Economic clouds were gathering on the horizon. Israel and the middle-
east was a constant news item. Oil was in arab control and the arab 
community started to flex their economic muscle, - oil prices soared, plunging
the western economies into disarray and sending inflation spiralling right
across the globe. The Vietnam war was entering its final stages and Watergate
was all the rage. 
     THe Coalition of 1973 was an unhappy one, they were powerless in the
face of world economic dissarray, they had little of no clear policy on many
issues, they tried to crack down on the IRA operations in the Republic. New
restrictive laws were tabled for debate. The old chestnut of moral reform
reared it head in embarrassing form in the legislation for contraception.
Pulpit pounding was back in vogue. Throughout 1973 talks had been going on
in London regarding the devolution of power to N.I. A formula was put to
the Unionists and talks were initiated in Sunningdale on the matter. An
agreement called power-sharing was evolved. THe Sunningdale Agreement was
signed by Liam Cosgrove, Ted Heath, and Brian Faulkner (new Unionist leader).
THe Agreement also provided recognition for "the Irish Dimension". Unionists
went wild with rage. The new Assembly elected to operated this agreement was
a very unhappy one. The Unionist party was once more split, Paisley was by
now a very potent political force (gone were his old populist rantings in the
days of Maj. Ronald Bunting - did I hear ye say who???). The power-sharing
executive was put into being with members of the S.D.L.P. sharing executive
power with Unionists. 
     Paisley and like-minded Unionists, and the protestant paramilitary fringes
organised a General Strike to bring down the executive. There was widespread
intimidation of workers and many ugly incidents. THis was May 1974 and the
one of the incidents was three bombs planted in Dublin and Monaghan town.
THose were no-warning, anti civilian bombs and over thirty were killed in
the space of a half-hour. The reaction was shock and horror in the Republic,
and the immediate passing of the Offences against the State act. No hardening
of opinion towards the north took place however. Cosgrove, and indeed Fine
Gael has always been more amenable towards Britain. THis is evident from 
the fact that any time Britain does a deal with the Irish government it was
always with this party or its predecessor. Fianna Fail was always looked upon
as an odious ogre even under the Lynch leadership, in spite of the fact that
it was by far the largest political party on the island (still is).
    The Power-sharing executive fell, and the North as returned to direct
rule from Westminster. Internment was continuing apace and the general
outcry against it was growing. By now Britain was heavily embroiled in 
N.I. and was constantly percieved as being pro-Unioinst. IRA violence was
un-stoppable if controllable. The Unionist veto on political movement had
been proven on the streets by the general strike, to which London capitulated.
HMG had no appetite for facing down Unionist militarism, but seemed to have
no problem at all facing down republican militancy.
   By now the violence was at an "acceptable level" to use the words of a 
British Secretary of State for N.I. and in the Republic people were growing
immune to the litany of death and destruction happening up North, (another
by-product of partition was setting in - apathy towards the suffering of the
other community north of the border and the distinct desire not to become
part of it). This is "real" partition to my way of thinking.

1974 - 1981 :
-----------

     The Coalition in the Republic staggered to its time-limit. The economy
was on the slide. Ritchie Ryan had introduced a new fiscal procedure called
Deficit Budgeting. In 1977 the Budget deficit of the Irish State stood at
�250 millions and unemployment was 115,000, (the North was much worse).
   Lynch and Fianna Fail offered the electorate a manifesto of public 
spending, and more deficit budgeting up to the level of �470 million to 
prime the economic pump "so to speak". Personal taxes were increased while
local house-rates and car tax were abolished. It was a big bargain that the
Irish electorate bought, and since the "Arms Trial" mud slinging no longer
carried any weight, Cosgrove lost and Lynch was back. THe olive branch was
extended to Charlie Haughey, who was appointed minister for Health. Tensions
remained however and Haugheys opposition to Colley, Gibbons, and O'Malley
in cabinet was a thinly guarded secret. Haughey had been a Finance whizz-kid
in the past and was opposed to the Manifesto on principle. Things buzzed for
a while, unemployment was reduced to 70,000 but borrowing to finance 
government expenditure was increasing rapidly. Disenchantment with Lynch was
rife on the back-benches, and there was a move to oust him. Lynch resigned.
Colley and Haughey once more jockeyed for the job of Taoiseach. THis time
Haughey won (44 votes to 40). Talk of two parties was all the rage. THe
opposition was back in business.
       Haughey continued with the borrowing schemes and announced major
investments (the phone system in particular). Haughey kept Colley and O'Malley
in his cabinet but difficulties did not go away. Haughey went to the country
in 1980 (1 year before he needed to have done). He was denied an overall
majority by some independents. Garret Fitzgerald led another coalition into
office.
       Up North Internment had being stopped, but prison protests were
starting, the Blanket protest in particular. A hunger-stike was started and
eventually suspended, only to be switched on again in the following Spring
(1981). THis time Bobby Sands and his fellow strikers were not calling off 
their agonising and determined protest. Ten were to die in this fashion
(hunger-strike), which was modelled on the protest by Terence McSweeney,
the Lord Mayor of Cork city in 1920. International focus on the British
rule over N.I. was now focussed  for the first time (previous to this it
was the Unionist rule that was being focussed). Margaret Thatcher stood
her ground as the "Iron Lady". 

1981 - Today :
------------

You shouldn't need me to tell ye the history of the last 5 years or so.
In the republic Garret Fitzgerald was defeated in a Budget vote and 
Haughey was returned to power (the great survivor of Irish politics).
His government was short-lived however. In Dec. 1982 his majority of
one was lost on the death of a T.D. for Clare. Fitzgerald blocked the
by-election writ (knowing that this one would be won by Haughey), and then
tabled a motion of no-confidence, which he couldn't lose. The subsequent
election returned Garret Fitzgerald to power with another coalition and
a majority of 5. THis was a receent government and one that will not be
looked on too well by history asit was a total failure in many areas,
especially economic. It was also divisive and introduced Referenda that
both caused much division in the community and both were disastrous.
   Again Britain was willing to negotiate a deal with a Fine Gael led
government and "Garret the good" much beloved of the British media and
public met with Mrs. Thatcher and the Anglo-Irish agreement was signed.
In March 1987 Haughey returned to power with a minority goverment (he
needs two more seats). The opposition is in disarray. Fianna Fail has
purged its dissent and is once more a united party. George Colley having
died of a heart-attack, and Desmond O'Malley leaving to set up a new party
called the Progressive Democrats. It was a mark of singular dissillusionment
with the previous government that Fine Gael lost 25% of its vote to this
new party (which was supposed to cripple Fianna Fail). Fainna Fail's losses
to the P.D's were limited to about 8% of its traditional vote, and four
sitting T.D's.
    Now is eight months into the new government and though no promises are
being made (Haughey could be brought down any time), it would appear that
it will survive another year or more. Garret who ??? is what everybody is
saying.



So ends my diatribe. Comment if you would ....

    
    Re: -1, A truly remarkable contribution to this conference! You
    have managed to concisely correlate the effects and consequenses
    of events which, although occurring years, decades or centuries
    apart, bear directly upon the extremely difficult situation NI finds
    itself in today. This document was most certainly NOT boring. I
    have read it in its entirety and will print it off for distribution.
    
    Many thanks,
    Mike

    
    Bravo, Bravo! You've outdone yourself this time, snake. Within our
    blood runs deep the pain of strife.
    C.J.

    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
                             OUTSTANDING JOB!!!!!

    
    A Chara, A major work of celestial consequence...you should be either
    congratulated or executed....at last glance, the jury was at lunch...
    ....a denizen of Tuam,Co.Galway, now resident with Aviation Services,
    Hanscom Field, Bedford, MA, US.
    is Mise,
    Kevin
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    

    Well done Mike.
    
    You did, as you pointed out in your foreword, fail to conceal your
    bias. It was a worthwhile exercise and one hopes that rather than
    he taken as "gospel", it readers would now try and get a hold of
    many of the fine books written about Ireland and It past.
    I would recommend "Ireland Since the Famine" by Prof. T.S Lyons
    (I know it is Lyons but I am not so sure it is T.S.)
    
    You and I have argued History and its revelance to today Ireland
    on many ocassions in the past and hopefully we can do the same again
    over some nice creamy pints of Guinness.
    
    I must point out as a supporter of F.Gael and Garret Fitzgerald
    that you made some pretty sweeping statments about his term as
    Taoiseach. In twenty years time when we can speak about the 70's
    and 80's with less emotion and more facts, I think he will be seen
    as a man who tried to bring Ireland Forward both socially and in
    terms of unification but was bedivelled by a destructive (as opposite
    to constructive) opposition in the Dail and a "I'm all right Jack"
    attitude by the population in regards to National Debt which incidently
    was swelled not by Increased borrowing by that Govt but by an
    accumulation of Interest on borrowing to pay for the F.F. give way
    election promises of 1977-79.
    
    We as always will agree to disagree Mike, Again well done and don't
    change (even if you are wrong!!), it is your character thats stands
    you out from the crowd !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
    
    Regards
    Cllr Dom O'Hara T.C., P.C. 

    
    If you are interested in further discussion on Irish history 
    there is a topic devoted to it in the HISTORY notesfile,
    (STKCSC::HISTORY). Topic 94 has over 100 notes on 
    controversial aspects of Irish history like the Famine, the
    1798 Rebellion, the 1916 Rising, the 1921 Treaty and the
    current violence in Northern Ireland.
    
    The topic has some notes by myself which try to describe the
    course of Irish history - unfortunately, not as colourful as
    Mike's and differing in some significant respects.
    
    Happy Reading,
    
    Toby 

    
    Pre-12th Century:
    ----------------
    
    Christianity arrived in Ireland in the 5th century and was firmly
    established by the Viking invasions in the 9th century (?). 
    The country was split into many kingdoms, generally warring and
    feuding, but with a generally recognised "primus inter pares"
    or Ard-Ri (High-King). The Ard-Ri-ship was held by the strongest.
    Christianity was of the Celtic variety - organised around
    abbots and monasteries rather that bishoprics, and with such things
    as public confession etc. By the twelfth century, the Vikings
    through trading cites like Dublin, Waterford and Limerick had
    brought Ireland within the ambit of the European civilization
    of the Middle Ages. The church also became reformed at this
    time.
    
    Norman Invasion and Colonization: 12th - 15th centuries
    ------------------------------------------------------
    
    The Normans arrived first as mercenaries to support a local
    King in his quarrel with the High-King. However this band of
    warriors, the foremost in Europe at that time, stayed to 
    conquer and claim land for themselves. Their adventures compare
    with Cortes in Mexico. Henry II of England fearing another
    Norman kingdom in Ireland arrived and claimed the title
    "Lord of Ireland" and received the homage of the invaders and
    the local kings. The Norman invasion was part of the great
    explosion of energy in medieval Europe that included the
    Norman conquests of Sicily, the First Crusade, the colonization
    of East Prussia and the reconquest of much of Spain from the
    Moors. 
    
    The Normans did not complete the conquest however, the medieval
    English colony was mainly confined to the South-East, with 
    strong Anglo-Norman enclaves in the cities and fertile valleys.
    This was England's first true colony, and many distinctive
    "Irish" names date from this time - Roche, Barry, Joyce, Burke etc.
    Gradually the colony was weakened though economic decline, the
    Black Death and intermarriage with the Irish.
    
    Many of the Anglo-Norman families adopted Irish customs and 
    became "Hibernicized" - speaking Irish, allying with Irish
    chieftains, fostering children with Irish families etc. However
    they still formed a distinct group - known as the "Old English"
    to distinguish them from later settlers from England.
    
    The country was ruled from England through the great magnates,
    usually the Fitzgeralds of Kildare, who supported the Yorkist
    side in the War of the Roses but were strong enough to survive
    the start of the Tudor regime. However, the Tudors began to
    break the power of the big families - first the Kildare
    Fitzgeralds, later the Desmond (Southern) Fitzgeralds.
    
    Eventually in 1527 (I think) Henry VIII proclaimed himself
    King of Ireland and through a system of "surrender and re-grant"
    accepted the homage of the Irish chieftains in return for
    English titles - for example, the O'Neills became Earls of Tyrone,
    O'Donnells Earls of Tirconnell stc.
    
    Reformation, Rebellion and Plantation 16-17th centuries:
    --------------------------------------------------------
    
    Basically, the Irish (Old English and native Irish) did not
    care what the English King did not or what his religion was,
    however with the Spanish wars, England had a definite strategic
    interest in seeing Ireland a quiescent part of its dominions.
    The century 1590 - 1690 was a period in which England completed a
    campaign of bloody conquest, and colonization by a new wave of
    Protestant settlers. Many areas were planted but only
    in Ulster did the plantation put down secure roots as many Scots 
    arrived to take land and settle. In the rest of the country,
    the mass confiscations that followed the Cromwellian wars led
    to a the creation of a Protestant aristocracy and gentry which
    held title of most of the land. 
    
    With the Williamite wars (1689-91) and the Treaty of Limerick,
    the last hope of Catholic Ireland died. The old Gaelic order finally
    passed into history (as it was to do in Scotland after Culloden).
    
    
    18th Century: Protestant Ascendancy:
    ----------------------------------- 
    
    The Protestant landowners evolved a distinctive colonial society,
    which had many cultural achievements - beautiful architecture,
    the literature of Swift and Goldsmith, the philosophy of Berkeley
    etc. However it overlay a lively subterranean culture that was
    Irish speaking and Catholic. The Penal laws passed to deprive 
    the Irish of participation in public life were gradually relaxed,
    however the French Revolution and 1798 Rebellion led to a 
    new polarization between Protestant and Catholic.
    A Parliament existed in Dublin for which Catholics could vote
    from the 1790's but was ended by the Act of Union in 1800.
    
    19th Century: Famine and Home Rule:
    ----------------------------------
 
    Catholic Emancipation or the rights of Catholics to  
    sit in the Westminster Parliament was conceded in 1828 after
    very effective agitation led by Daniel O'Connell.

    Population increased alarmingly during the first two decades of
    this century, then the rate of increase gradually started to slow.   
    However, large groups of people, particularly the labouring landless
    classes became increasingly marginalised within the rural economy
    as they were driven to cultivate poorer and poorer land, and to 
    become increasingly dependent on the potato as a source of food.
    Disaster struck in the 1840's as the potato crop failed for three
    years running, resulting in widespread deaths from starvation and
    disease particularly in the West. Emigration became the means of
    survival and betterment for the great mass of the landless, and
    the depopulation of the countryside of a whole class of people
    began. Ineffective (and sometimes mean-spirited) attempts at
    relief for the distress by the British Goverment led to a later
    feeling of residual bitterness among the Irish. In rough figures
    1 million people died, and 1 million people emigrated as a direct
    result of the famine (that's 25% of the 1845 population).

    As this century went on, the power of the Catholic majority (despite
    Famine and emigration) continued to grow with respect the the
    landowning class - in the "Land War" against landlordism (1880's), 
    the English Parliament passed many Land Acts in which the Irish
    peasantry could buy out their farms with government loans. 
    Thus the era of the "strong farmer" began and the society of
    rural Ireland which had been forming since the Famine was finally
    stabilised. The labourers or landless which had been declining
    as a class since the Famine continued to disappear from Ireland
    leaving a dominant "middle class" of farmers which has been 
    most influential up to the present day.
    
    A strong Irish party was elected to Westminister under Charles
    Stewart Parnell, which allied the parliamentary movement with elements
    in the Fenians (a revolutionary group) and the conservative
    Catholic element to force "Home Rule" (a movement to return
    a Parliament to Dublin). Acting with Gladstone and the Liberals,
    two Home rule bills were brought forward in the 1880's but were 
    defeated, however the aspiration remained. 
    
    The "fly in the ointment" was Ulster where a strong and cohesive
    Protestant majority with great influence in Britain rejected Home 
    Rule and threatened to use force to prevent it. 
    
    20th Century - up to 1921: Rebellion, Partition and Troubles:
    -------------------------------------------------------------
    
    Parnell's party had split after the disasterous divorce case in
    which he was involved, but the two elements re-united later. In
    1910 the Irish party found itself holding the balance of power
    in the English Parliament and made Home Rule the price of its
    support to the Liberals. 
    
    Before this, a strong Gaelic revival took place in the 
    country and a literary movement that aroused strong Nationalist
    feelings and memories. However, except for a small minority,
    Ireland in 1910 was at its most content within the framework
    of the United Kingdom.
    
    The people of Ulster rejected Home Rule and set about forming
    an armed force to oppose it. An attempt by the British government
    to move the army into Ulster was botched when officers made clear
    they would not march. Nationalists also set up an armed force
    to defend Home Rule. On top of this, the First World War broke
    out, which led to Home Rule being put on the statute books, but
    with an exclusion clause for some Ulster counties and with
    a "stay of execution" until the war was over. Remember, it was
    suppose to be over by Christmas!
    
    As the was dragged on, the British government got more and more
    unpopular. Finally at Easter 1916, the country was startled to 
    find that elements of the Nationalist movement who opposed the
    war had staged a rebellion in Dublin. This was crushed after a
    week with less than 1,000 dead but with the city centre gutted.
    Too-harsh countermeasures by the martial law administration
    (16 executions of the leaders) swung support behind the insurgents
    and led to the success of Sinn Fein ("We Ourselves") in key
    by-elections. Adding folly to foolishness, the government tried
    to introduce conscription which united every nationalist shade
    of opinion against the administration.   
    
    In 1918, Sinn Fein almost swept the board in elections, outside
    of Ulster, where the Unionists held firm. In 1919, a parliament
    met in Dublin ("An Dail") and proclaimed an independent
    Republic. On the same date, the military wing of Sinn Fein
    (Irish Republican Army) began a campaign of assassination of
    policemen and military personnel. The period 1919-21 was a
    period of guerilla war in the South ("The Troubles") and of
    sectarian strife in the North. This was followed in 1921 
    by the Anglo-Irish treaty. 

    20th Century - Post 1921: Partition Confirmed and More Troubles
    ---------------------------------------------------------------
    
    This gave 26 counties of Ireland the name of "Irish Free State"
    and dominion status (like Canada) - the remainder of Ireland
    remained part of the United Kingdom but with a parliament of
    its own. Curiously the Civil War which followed in the 26
    (southern) counties was not fought over the fact of partition
    but because many elements of the IRA and Sinn Fein would accept
    nothing less than a Republic.

    Northern Ireland (6 counties) was given "Home Rule" - a parliament
    within the United Kingdom. This was an absolute
    irony as they had opposed it so vehemently. However it became
    acceptable if applied to a region where Unionists dominated.
    
    In the South, the pro-treaty side won the civil war, though they 
    lost power to their (parliamentary) opponents 10 years later. After 
    1922 the southern governments gradually disentangled themselves from
    connections with the British crown.. In 1938, the
    political party known as "Fianna Fail" led by Eamonn De Valera
    promulgated a new constitution under which the country became known 
    (bilingually) as "Eire/ Ireland", without a Governor-General. In 1948 a 
    republic was proclaimed and the country left the commonwealth.
    Oddly, De Valera was not completely happy with this, as he recognised
    that another bridge to the North had been broken.

    During the war, De Valera's government was ostensibly neutral, 
    however historians have been delighted in recent years to bring
    to light the manifold ways that Eire assisted the allies. The
    latest researcher has gone so far as to say that Ireland was not
    really neutral at all (i.e. it went beyond a pragmatic level
    of aid). However, the last word on this has not been spoken.

    After the setting up of the Republic, the Westminster parliament
    passed the Northern Ireland Act, guarantee the position of Northern
    Ireland within the United Kingdom as long as a majority of the 
    people there wished it so. The Irish government agreed to this in the
    Anglo-Irish agreement of 1987, however it is contradicted by
    the Irish constitution which has a unilateral claim to Northern
    Ireland, while recognising "de facto" it is under another
    jurisdiction.
 
    Little was done in the South to build bridges to the Unionists,
    ritual breast-beating about the evils of partition (especially
    near election time) took the place any sort of rational 
    approach. Indeed, the South passed many illiberal laws regulating
    sexual morality that offended the Protestant conscience.
    Meanwhile, in the North, the Unionists were content to keep up
    the appearance of being under siege as that guaranteed that
    on one would break ranks to let in "the enemy".

    The Northern Irealnd parliament lasted until 1972
    when after the outbreak of the current troubles, the British
    government prorogued it. In the words of its first prime minister,
    Brookborough, it was "A Protestant parliament for a Protestant
    people" - Catholics, though 1/3 of the population, suffered many
    civil disabilities and discrimination in jobs and housing.
    
    The British Government disastrously introduced Internment
    without trial in 1971, which enormously boosted the 
    Nationalist terrorist group, the IRA. Ten years later, the BG
    made another blunder with ham-fisted handling of IRA hunger
    strikers at the Maze prison. This brought Sinn Fein (IRA political
    wing) much gains in electoral support, but this has considerably
    diminished up to the present, helped by the Anglo-Irish agreement
    in 1987. This set up the Anglo-Irish conference which enabled
    the Dublin government to raise matters relating to Northern
    Ireland directly with the BG. 

    At this, the Unionists shouted "foul" and began a campaign designed
    to destroy the agreement, without success. However, it was always
    made clear that the IG and the BG would replace the agreement with
    another one, if Unionists participated.

    This takes us up to the current talks which may make it possible to
    do this (but don't hold your breath!).